INTRODUCTION

It is very difficult to explain the process by which Britain became Celtic. Some scholars believe in the theory of successive waves of Celtic settlers from Europe. Others see British ‘celticization’ as a gradual process, involving European influences and the adoption of Celtic techniques and customs rather than invasion, other than in a few very specific and limited instances, exemplified by the ‘Arras culture’ of north-east Britain (Collis 1984). The presence of British Celts and their influences can be traced by their settlements, metalwork and changes in technology. The most significant of these changes was the discovery, probably in the Near East, of the technique of smelting iron from its own ore and its forging into tools and weapons (see Chapter 17) (Collis 1984: 15, 24, 28-32). By the fourth century BC, these techniques were well established in south-east Britain with the discovery of suitable ores from the limestone belt across Northamptonshire into Lincolnshire. This can be seen from the distribution of currency-bars which were used in trade-exchange (Allen 1967: 307-35, figs I, 2). It has been assumed that these are the taleis ferreis mentioned by Caesar {De Bello Galileo V.12.4) as used by the Britons as ‘money’ (pro nummo). The Celts were great warriors and seized the opportunity to produce iron swords which, with tempering, became as fine as modern steel, well surpassing the earlier bronze weapons. They became master-craftsmen and even supplied the Roman army with its gladii and longer cavalry swords (spathae).

In the long period of the Iron Age in Britain, there were many changes. These were due perhaps to some movement of people from Gaul and the development of trade, especially in fine metalwork (Figure 32.1). The identification of particular communities can only be made by their burial customs and other religious rites. These were so deep a part of tribal tradition that changes took place only slowly over long periods and are not easily detectable. Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of recognized burials of their period (see Chapter 26).

Convincing evidence of cultural change can perhaps be studied in the appearance of defended enclosures, usually on hilltops, which is Indicative of an unstable society (see Chapter 5). The different types and sizes of these enclosures must reflect changes in relationships between communities and their tribal hierarchies.

Figure 32.1 A reconstruction of a bucket from Baldock. (Copyright: British Museum.)

Cross-Channel trade routes had already been established for centuries before the Roman occupation, and some of the coastal tribes of northern Gaul had already well-founded trade relations with the peoples along the south coast of Britain. This has been shown by investigations at the ports of entry at Hengistbury Head (Cunliffe 1987) and Mount Batten (Cunliffe 1988) near Plymouth. The most Important imports were olive oil and wine, to which the Gallic Celts had become addicted (Diodorus Siculus V.26.3), as the evidence from the distribution of amphorae shows (Peacock 1971: 168-88). More evidence of this trade is found from studying the ships of this period (see Chapter 15), especially from those wrecked off the British and Gallic coasts (Muckelroy 1981: 275-97). What is of great interest is that the wine was not confined to the Gallic producers but included products from north Italy as well (Galliou 1984), a factor which was to be of importance at a later date, as will be seen.

A problem to be faced by the British Celts was the payment for those imports. There was a limit to the quantity of gold bullion in the form of coins, especially as it was needed for internal uses. As a warrior society, there was always the possibility of capturing slaves in the inter-tribal frontier skirmishes which were almost annual events, but this too was limited and the only other marketable commodities were agricultural produce and livestock. The possibility of using such as surplus for trade has been discussed by Barry Cunliffe in relation to Danebury (Cunliffe 1983: 174-5). However much evidence excavation can produce, there remain too many imponderable factors to form a sound judgement. But the problem remains of the method of exchange for the wine consumed at Danebury on the evidence of the amphorae found in a late phase of the site (100-50 BC) (ibid.: 179).

This was suddenly changed, at least for south-east Britain, when this area came into direct contact with Rome, through the raids of Caesar in 55 and 54 BC. But before this is considered in detail, it is necessary to consider how and why Rome became interested in Celtic Britain through the operations of Caesar in Gaul.