Persia

During the fourth century the western region of the Persian Empire was divided into three, or at times four, major administrative districts or satrapies. In the northwest was Hellespontine Phrygia with a capital at Daskyleion; to the south was Lydia, which included Ionia and whose capital was Sardis; in the southwest was Karia with a traditional seat inland at Mylas, though later a new center was created at coastal Halikarnassos. Karia had been ruled since 390 by the indigenous Hekatomnid dynasty. There were other small dynasts who held their land, fief-like, at the pleasure of the King, such as Syennesis in Kilikia, and the descendants of prominent Greek exiles such as Demaratos and Themistokles in Mysia and the Troad. There were also regions that had resisted Persian rule, such as Pisidia and Lykia. For the most part an individual community operated with considerable freedom and could choose its own form of government and collect its own revenues. Democracies, oligarchies, and tyrannies existed side by side. Leagues of cities or small personal empires were tolerated. Individual satraps could be rivals for local control of territory. During the fourth century under the King there was probably greater opportunity for local and native peoples to attain high rank than there had been under fifth-century Athenian Empire. There were even women rulers in Karia and the Troad. The bottom line for the Persian King, it seems, was the regular payment of annual tribute and the willingness to provide military service when required (Hornblower 1994a: 45-96; Ruzicka 1997).

Artaxerxes II (404-359) was interested in the Greek world mainly as a source of mercenaries. While Sparta, Athens, and Thebes maneuvered for Hellenic preeminence, Artaxerxes II’s chief concern was to bring Egypt, which had rebelled in 404, back under Persian rule. None of his attempts succeeded. He also faced a series of satrapal revolts in the west during the 360s. The satrap of Kappadokia, Datames, put in charge of an expedition to Egypt, retreated to his satrapy and prepared to revolt when he got wind of an intrigue against him at the royal court. Loyal satraps Autophradates of Lydia and Maussolos of Karia besieged Ariobarzanes, rebellious satrap (or perhaps regent for Pharnabazos’ heir, Artabazos) of Hellespontine Phrygia. The Athenians briefly aided Ariobarzanes while the Spartan king Agesilaos served as mercenary commander in Egypt. It was in this climate that Artaxerxes financed the Theban fleet. By 362 all the western satraps were in revolt, as was Phoenicia and, of course, Egypt. The crisis with the satraps was settled swiftly, however, when the satraps chose Orontes as their leader and he promptly betrayed them to the King. By the time Artaxerxes II died all of the western Anatolian satraps were back in the fold. The focus on Egypt and the confusion caused by the satrapal revolts had allowed smaller dynasts, such as Hermeias of Atarneos, considerable scope to operate independently and to expand their rule (Hornblower 1994b: 209-33; Ruzicka 1997).

Artaxerxes III Ochos (359-338) is generally regarded as having been a much stronger and more competent ruler than his father. He ruthlessly eliminated potential rivals for the throne within his family. His word carried weight; when he ordered the western satraps to disband their mercenary armies they did so with alacrity. The one rebellious satrap, Artabazos of Hellespontine Phrygia, after some initial successes, eventually was forced to flee to Macedon. Similarly, Idrieus of Karia and the Athenians were quick to do as Artaxerxes III ordered. By 352 he was ready to tackle Egypt. His first attempt failed, as did a second, which fell short even of making inroads into the Levant. But in 345, with the King himself in command, Persia recaptured Sidon and as an example burnt it to the ground and executed its king. Once in Egypt Artaxerxes III’s commanders Bagoas and the Rhodian Mentor scored an initial success in a relatively minor battle at the Pelusiac branch of the Nile in the eastern section of the delta; the Egyptian king Nektanebo II fled in panic to Memphis. By 343 Egypt was at last back under Persian domination. Artaxerxes III then dispatched Mentor to western Anatolia, where he restored order rapidly. Hermeias of Atarneos was defeated and captured and the other dynasts brought to heel. The growing power of Philip II of Macedon in Thrace and the Hellespont was Artaxerxes III’s next concern. When Philip laid siege to Perinthos in 340 Artaxerxes III directed his satraps to assist the city, and Philip’s effort eventually failed. Artaxerxes III died in 338, having lived long enough to hear of Philip’s victory at Chaironeia but not of Philip’s goal for his new League of Greek states based at Korinth: the freeing of the Greek cities of Anatolia from Persian rule.