In the fourth of his orations against Catiline, delivered before the Senate in 63, Cicero asserts once again that the whole of Rome is united behind him. ‘‘All men are here, of every order, of all origins and indeed of all ages. The Forum is full, the temples about the Forum are full, all the approaches to this temple and place are full. For this case is the only one known since the founding of the city in which all think as one’’ ( Cat. 4.14). To reinforce his argument, he lists the different groups that have now joined together in their hope that the Senate will come to the correct decision. First come the equites, the group of wealthy Romans from which the Senate drew its members, ‘‘who concede supremacy to you in rank and decision-making as they compete with you in their love of the res publica’ (Cat. 4.15). Secondly, the tribunes of the treasury and the clerks. Thirdly, the mass of the citizens: ‘‘the whole multitude of free-born citizens ( ingenui) is here, even the poorest. For is there anyone to whom these temples, the sight of the city, the possession of liberty and even the light itself and the common soil of the fatherland are not precious and sweet and delightful?’’ (Cat. 4.16). Fourthly, the liberti, the former slaves who received citizenship when they were manumitted: ‘‘it is worth the effort, Conscript Fathers, to take note of the eagerness of the freedmen, who, having gained the benefit of citizenship by their own virtue, truly judge this to be their native land’’ (Cat. 4.16). That completes the roll-call of respectable members of society, but Catiline is such a threat to Rome that ‘‘there is no slave, as long as his condition of servitude is not too severe, who does not give his support, as much as he dares and is able, to the common cause’’ (Cat. 4.16).
The force of Cicero's argument comes from the assumption that Roman society was not completely homogeneous, but consisted of a number of distinct groups whose interests were often opposed; only when the state was in real danger would these groups set aside their differences. The study of social structure rests on a similar assumption; societies are seen to be made up of interdependent social groups that
Shape the behavior of their individual members. The members of a particular group will tend to have common interests and to share a way of life; where power and resources are distributed unevenly across the society, there is likely to be a strong correlation between an individual’s social group and his or her prospects, occupation, access to resources, and even life expectancy. Social interaction between members of the same group is likely to be very different in nature from that between members of different groups, if the latter interact at all; sometimes, indeed, the interests shared by members of the same group may lead them to act in concert, and in opposition to other groups. Social conflict can be one of the main determinants of historical events, but at the same time any society, in order to survive, will have means of mediating between the interests of different groups and building consensus - if only, as Cicero tries to do, by uniting them against a common enemy.
Any complex society will contain a wide range of different sorts of social groups and associations, both formal and informal; any individual is likely to belong to a number of different ones. The crucial analytical problem is therefore to identify which of these groups are the most important, both from the point of view of their influence on the behavior of individuals and as regards the overall workings of society. This is a matter of some contention in the study of modern society; there are a number of competing theories, some of which will be discussed below, that claim to have uncovered the basic structures of social relations. In considering a historical society, however, there is the initial question of whether we should employ actors’ or observers’ categories in our analysis: that is to say, whether we should analyze Roman society purely in the terms that the Romans themselves used to describe it, or whether it is legitimate and productive to employ concepts developed by modern sociological theory.
Roman writers, like their Greek predecessors, did not distinguish conceptually between the spheres of‘‘society’’ and ‘‘politics’’ in the way that modern studies do; the phrase res publica can reasonably be translated as ‘‘state’’ in some contexts and ‘‘society’’ (in the broadest sense) in others. Cicero’s list of the different groups that, for him, made up Roman society is driven by his political concerns, but it goes beyond the narrowly political: he emphasizes the freeborn - freedman distinction, although this made little difference in strictly political terms (freedmen could not stand for office, but in practice neither could most citizens); he includes slaves, despite their complete exclusion from the sphere of political activity; and he completely ignores both census groups and tribes, the formal divisions of the Roman citizen body. In other words, he favors broader categories of analysis over the clearly defined (but, by implication, arbitrary) units of the political system, emphasizing ‘‘social’’ and ‘‘ideological’’ distinctions as much as the divisions established by the Roman census. Thus it could be argued that Cicero provides the historian with a ready-made set of social categories that reflect the way in which the Romans actually thought, avoiding any need to distort the ancient evidence to fit anachronistic modern categories such as ‘‘class’’ or ‘‘status groups.’’
There is no denying the importance of Cicero’s view of Roman society in so far as it must at times have influenced his decisions and actions; since this passage of the speech would work only if its basic assumptions were shared by its audience, we might cautiously take it as evidence also for the prevailing attitude of the rest of the Senate. As a means of understanding Roman social structure, however, it has certain limitations. In the first place, Cicero does not actually offer a consistent picture. The groups he describes are distinguished from one another in different ways, rather than being based on a single principle of social differentiation: senators are distinguished from equites by the fact that they had held a magistracy, whereas the equites had chosen not to pursue political careers (or had failed to get themselves elected); equites in turn were distinguished from the rest of the population by their wealth, a division established by the census; tribunes of the treasury were distinguished from the mass of the population by their office, freeborn and freedmen were distinguished by birth, and slaves and the free were divided by legal status.
More significantly, on other occasions Cicero offers different accounts of Roman society. In his second oration against Catiline, once again enumerating the components of a united Rome, he lists the consuls and the generals, the coloniae and the municipia (different categories of Italian towns; see also Chapter 28), the Senate, the equites, and the People of Rome, as well the city, the treasury, and the taxes, all Italy, the provinces, and foreign nations ( Cat. 2.25); perhaps the fact that this speech was delivered before the People led him to play down differences between freeborn and freedmen. In the first book of his work On Duties (De Officiis), he distinguishes between the different duties of magistrates, private citizens, and resident foreigners, having previously also mentioned slaves as a distinct group (Off. 1.124, 1.41). In his more philosophical work The Republic (De republica) he identifies three key groups - the magistrates, the leading citizens, and the People (Rep. 2.57) - and divides the People on the basis of wealth: the taxpayers ( assidui) who contribute money to the state, and the poor (proletarii) who can contribute only their offspring (Rep. 2.40). In the fourth oration against Catiline, after the passages quoted, he focuses on a particular section (genus) of the People - not now differentiating between freeborn and freedman - defined by occupation: the ‘‘poor and inexperienced’’ who worked in shops and workshops, tabernae, and who were considered as likely adherents of Catiline (Cat. 4.17). In another speech he distinguishes (without explaining the distinction) between the populus (a word which normally refers to the whole body of the citizens) and the mass of the poor, the plebs (Mur. 1). Cicero acknowledges, but generally dismisses, differences within the Senate and the equites based on lineage and background: patrician and plebeian, the man of ‘‘noble’’ lineage (nobilis) and the ‘‘new man’’ (novus homo) who was the first in his family to enter the Senate (Mur. 1516). He consistently distinguishes between Senate and equites, while noting that, in most leading families, different generations could be found in either category.
Overall, then, Cicero identifies and employs a wide range of different means of dividing up Roman society: legal status, political status, wealth, lineage, occupation, place of origin, moral standing. He does not indicate which of these are to his mind most significant, apart from the clearly polemical assertion that none of them matter compared with dedication to the best interests of Rome (compare Sest. 96 on the different groups that make up the ‘‘optimates,’’ the group who favored the policies of those whom Cicero refers to as ‘‘the best citizens’’). If we want to make use of Cicero’s categories of social analysis, which ones do we choose? All the groups identified - with the exception of the tribunes of the treasury and the clerks - can be considered significant social groupings with common interests and with which individuals might identify; but it is left entirely unclear how important the free/ freedman/slave distinction was in shaping social action compared with the citizen/ non-citizen divide or the Roman/Italian split. Perhaps Roman society was indeed fragmented in this way, with a confusing array of different groups and no clear organizing principle; but perhaps that impression is simply a consequence of the fact that Cicero develops different accounts of the composition of the Roman People for different purposes.
This leads to the second limitation of his account, namely that these images of Roman society are hardly objective. Arguably, no account of society can ever be wholly neutral - the various modern theories of social organization have definite political overtones - but we should certainly be suspicious of the version offered by an interested party, a direct participant in political activity. In many cases, Cicero’s description is expressly designed to achieve a particular end; thus he creates the image of a stable, united society in order to cast Catiline and followers not merely as an opposing group within society but as outsiders, bandits, enemies of the state - and therefore to be treated with no mercy. At times he aims to legitimize the domination of his own group, offering a justification as much as a description of the status quo. Society is to be organized according to the principle of aristocracy, giving power to the ‘‘best men’’ (optimi), ‘‘for there is no occasion for revolution when each person is firmly placed in his own rank’’ (Rep. 1.69); on the other hand, ‘‘when equal honour is had by the highest and the lowest, who are of necessity in every population, this very evenness is most uneven’’ (Rep. 1.53). The magistrates and leading citizens are to have power and influence, the People are to have ‘‘enough’’ liberty (Rep. 2.57): ‘‘do we not see that dominion has been given to the best by nature itself, with the greatest benefit to the weak?’’ (Rep. 3.37). It scarcely needs to be said that the best judges of virtue and ability are the optimi themselves; following philosophical convention, he notes that the ‘‘mob (volgus - scarcely a neutral, objective category of analysis) does not fully understand how far it is from perfection; in so far as it understands anything, however, it considers that nothing is missing; the same thing happens in poems, pictures and many other such things, that the inexperienced are entertained by and praise things that are not worthy of praise’’ (Off. 3.15). Naturally, such people need to recognize their place and accept guidance.
This account of Roman society is not wholly self-serving; it is simply that society can look different from different locations within the structure, and that Cicero, a senator, interprets it according to the prejudices and obsessions of his own social group. Social relationships, for example, are considered entirely from the perspective of the elite political class. He focuses above all on the workings of friendship between equals, amicitia (here involving both senators and equites, without clear distinction; note Cicero’s intimate friendship with Atticus, an eques). Social life at this level is all about complex networks of kinship, affection, and obligation, a constant traffic in gifts, favors, influence, and information. Cicero’s interest in other sorts of social relationships is confined to those which are relevant to political ambitions. Thus he has a certain amount to say about patron - client relations, in which members of the lower orders provided votes, voices, and their presence in the retinue of the elite in the hope of receiving support, protection, or the benefits of influence in return (see also Chapter 19). Every aspiring politician needs a crowd of supporters, and so some contact with the masses is beneficial; ‘‘if you defend a needy man, who is however honest and temperate, all the respectable common folk, of whom there is a great multitude among the People, see you as a protector provided for them’’ ( Off. 2.70; see generally the Election Manual [ Commentariolum Petitionis] sometimes ascribed to Cicero’s brother). Cicero notices the ways that the masses organize their own social relationships, for example, the ‘‘associations’’ (collegia), only in so far as they offer an opportunity ofrecruiting support, or represent a threat as a source ofsupport for a rival like Clodius. This is a particular problem for history of the associations, which appear under the Republic as armed gangs involved in street brawls and under the Principate as respectable gatherings of merchants and craftsmen, holding dinners and conducting religious rites; but in general our knowledge of the social organization of the mass of the population is at the mercy of the very limited perspective of sources like Cicero.
The third limitation of Cicero’s account is that it is largely static, referring to one particular period. He comments on changes in relations within groups (the old patrician - plebeian conflict is now seen to be irrelevant: Mur. 17) and between groups (the Senate and the equites are supposedly no longer at variance: Cat. 4.15), and on the breakdown of social consensus since the time of Sulla, observing that Rome is now governed by fear rather than respect (e. g., Off. 2.26-9). However, he does not apparently consider that the different parts of Roman society might themselves change; on the contrary, the Roman social order was established back in the time of Servius, the sixth king of Rome (Rep. 2.39). This is a problem for all accounts of social structure, trying to balance synchronic description and diachronic narrative, and such structures do generally remain more or less the same over many generations. However, there is reason to think that the last two centuries of the Republic were times of significant social change, with the growth in the numbers of slaves and freedmen and the extension of the Roman citizenship - in most ancient societies, a narrowly defined, jealously guarded privilege - to the rest of Italy. Cicero shows some awareness that his world is changing, but lacks the long view and the benefit of hindsight to make proper sense of it.
For these reasons, therefore, we cannot take Cicero to offer a complete, or wholly reliable, account of Roman society. It should also be noted that the concern about the ‘‘anachronism’’ of modern sociological concepts compared with ancient terminology is a red herring: some measure of anachronism is inevitable whenever we translate Roman terms into English. Consider Cicero’s statement that ‘‘all men are here, of every order (ordo), of all origins (genus) and indeed of all ages.’’ Ordo can be translated as, among other things, rank, order, class, and station; genus as birth, origin, race, descent, kind, sort, or class; each of these choices has different implications. The decision as to whether genus should be translated as ‘‘origin’’ or ‘‘class,’’ or indeed ‘‘kind,’’ is made on the basis of the translator’s understanding of Roman society, mapping Cicero’s categories onto modern categories. This being the case, it seems better to make sense of Roman terminology explicitly in terms of precisely defined socioiogicai categories, where the modern overtones and implications are made explicit, rather than the ‘‘fuzzy’’ categories of everyday language. Even if we choose to leave terms in the original, to emphasize the lack of an exact equivalent in English and the fact that any translation is potentially misleading, we still need to consider what sorts of groups these are in modern terms.
There is a more positive case for drawing on modern terminology. First, it can, sometimes, offer greater precision, if only because we have to be more conscious about the status of our concepts. Secondly, it can offer the possibility of understanding ancient society as a system better than the Romans could themselves, drawing on the benefits of hindsight and the specialized study of social structures - above all, the use of models that aim to simplify a complex reality in order to make it more intelligible. Thirdly, it offers the possibility of making useful comparisons with other, similar societies - especially those whose social structures are rather better documented than those of classical antiquity - and makes it easier for others to draw on Roman evidence. Ancient history can only benefit from greater communication with other periods of history and other social sciences, but in order to do that it needs to make greater use of a common language, the standard terms of social analysis. However, there is no one universal system for making sense of social structure, but a variety of different theories; in considering what sorts of groups made up Roman society and how they related to one another, we need also to consider which of the various images of society presented by these theories seems most persuasive.
World History
