The Greek mainland is actually a peninsula. To the west is the Ionian Sea, to the east is the Aegean Sea, and to the south is the Mediterranean Sea. The term mainland itself is almost a misnomer, for even this part of the Greek world is composed mostly of smaller peninsulas and islands, such as Euboia and Aig-ina off the east coast of Attica. (Even the southernmost part of Greece, the Pelo-ponnese, was called Island of Pelops and is only connected to central Greece by a tiny isthmus at Corinth, separating the Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs.) In the extreme south, the landmass of the Peloponnese is cut at its eastern end by the Gulf of Argolis, and the low-lying plain thereabouts is called the Argolid.
The three best words to describe the Greek mainland are rocky, hilly, and mountainous. The farther south one goes, the more rocky and mountainous the land becomes. Thucydides, in Book 1 of his history of the Peloponnesian War, tells us that the soil of Attica in central Greece was so rocky and poor that when the Dorian invaders came, they passed right by it, looking for "good" land to settle. The mountainous quality of the terrain was significant in the history of Greece and the Greek peoples: It caused many individual city-states to be cut off from their neighbors, and the city-states consequently evolved with a strong sense of regionalism and political independence from one another. This kept the Greeks from uniting into a single power until the rise of Mace-don in the fourth century. This also forced the Greeks to travel a great deal by sea, which led very early on to long-distance trade and naval prowess.
In the north, lofty Mt. Olympos dominates the horizon, marking the ancient boundary between Greece and Macedon. The Pindus mountain chain divides northern Greece, running north-south along the western edge of the country all the way down to the Gulf of Corinth. To the east of this range is a series of mountains running east-west, dominated by (north to south) Mt. Olympos, Mt. Ossa, Mt. Pelion, Mt. Othrys, Mt. Parnassos, Mt. Helikon, and Mt. Parnes. The Pelo-ponnese is also dominated by high ground, notably by Mt. Kyllene, Mt. Parnon, and Mt. Taygetos near Sparta. The barriers that these mountains present can be thoroughly appreciated upon a visit to the country. Unlike the rolling slopes of the Rocky Mountains, the mountains of Greece are steep and abrupt. Walking in the suburbs of Sparta, one approaches what appears to be a solid wall stretching straight up into the sky. This is Taygetos. Also of considerable importance in the Peloponnese are the highlands of Arcadia, a high plateau in the center of the landmass. This area is so high as to be freezing most of the year, and it is possible to get frostbite at the Arcadian Temple of Apollo at Bassae in August.
Ancient Macedon abutted the northern border of ancient Greece. To the east was Thrace, which was seen by the Greeks as barbaric and was mainly a source of slaves. Macedon was bordered by Mt. Olympos to the south and cut through by the Haliakmon River, running mostly east to west. To the extreme east of the mainland is the Chalkidike, an udder-like formation with three peninsulas reaching down into the Aegean Sea.
The ancient Greeks exploited the bounteous natural resources that the land provided. Only the northern regions had flat terrain and rich soil, but some degree of farming and pasturage was possible throughout the land. The region around Sikyon near the Isthmus of Corinth grew rich on timber, which was used to build ships during the Classical period. Otherwise, large trees were restricted to the north, and much of Greece was covered by the smaller, lucrative olive tree, believed to be a gift from Athena. These small, silvery, scrubby trees provided not merely food in the form of olives, but also energy from wood and olive oil. The oil was also useful as a massage oil and skin moisturizer. The other major plant cultivated throughout the land was the grapevine, a gift from Dionysos, and wine was a major export throughout Greek history. (In modern times, the most famous Greek wine is retsina, flavored and preserved with pine. Although this might not sound so appetizing, keep in mind that in the Medieval and early Modern periods, other countries tempered their wine with lead.)
The scrubby, dry, rocky surface of the land is not well suited to raising large cattle but is ideal for sheep and goats, which provided wool, milk, and occasional meat for the ancient Greeks.
Although the land might not have been ideal for large-scale farming, the soil was rich in clay, and the Greeks became famous throughout the Mediterranean region for their exquisite pottery. Almost all major city-states produced their own wares, but the best pottery, used throughout the Mediterranean and now found in millions of museums throughout the world, came from Athens, Corinth, and the Argolid.
Mt. Penteli produced a fine grade of marble; it was one of the very few mainland sources of marble in Greece. Most of this mineral came from the islands, specifically the Cyclades (see below) and the northern island of Thasos, where some of the beaches are actually marble "floors."
Silver came from Macedon (Philip II used it to fund his armies) and from the Laurion mines in Attica (used by the Athenians to fund their navy). Otherwise, there were only sparse deposits of minerals on the Greek mainland, notably iron, and most metals had to be imported.
The climate of mainland Greece is Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers and mild, damp winters. Rainfall varies between heavy storms and drought, so farming was, as previously mentioned, precarious.
World History
