The Romans Regain the Initiative

The major political problem of the empire was the readiness of troops first to elevate their commanders to the post of emperor and then dispose of them as quickly if they failed to achieve. Gallienus was killed by his officers in 268. They probably resented his acquiescence in the independence of the Gallic empire and Palmyra. His successor, a cavalry-general, Claudius II, won a great victory over ‘the Goths’ that was to keep peace for decades, but died in 270 of the plague at Sirmium, his Balkan headquarters.

After Claudius’ death a series of emperors continued the struggle to resume control of the empire. They were of Balkan stock (the Balkans had become a major source of recruits) and their loyalty to the empire showed how successful it had been in integrating its subject peoples in a common cause. The first of these emperors was Aurelian (270-5), an energetic man and one with a vision of how to restore a fragmented empire. He defeated an invasion by the Alamanni and, as has been noted, finally brought to an end the two independent parts of the empire, the Gallic empire and Palmyra. He also rationalized the boundaries of the empire by withdrawing from Dacia and so re-establishing a frontier along the line of the Danube. He was lucky in that the Persian empire became less aggressive in the aftermath of the death of Shapur. To restore the confidence of the people of Rome, who had become increasingly aware of the vulnerability of their city, Aurelian built a massive wall round it, much of which still stands today. Once the empire was restored he brought back riches plundered from Palmyra to display in a great triumph in Rome with Zenobia and the last of the Gallic emperors, Tetricus, among the prisoners. Less successful was another of Aurelian’s initiatives, to issue a new gold coin of fine quality to replace those of previous emperors. It was doubtless a political move to reinforce the idea of a restored empire but the link with the value of silver coins broke down and in some parts of the empire, Egypt, for instance, the result was rampant inflation.

In 275, Aurelian was killed, probably by an aggrieved officer. His troops were furious as he had been much respected. The murderers had to flee and, after several months of political vacuum, an Aurelian supporter, Probus, was appointed emperor. Probus achieved further success against the Germans through a mixture of victories and concessions, among them the recruitment of Germans to his armies. In the hope of recultivating the devastated borderlands of the empire defeated barbarians were settled there. Probus too died at the hands of his troops in 282 and his successor, Carus, who had continued the fight back by launching a successful invasion of Persia, died on campaign only a year later, apparently struck by lightning. Much had been done in these short reigns but there needed to be a period of consolidation if the empire was to regroup its resources for long-term survival.

Carus was the first emperor not to seek formal recognition by the senate (and his successors followed suit). This was a significant moment as the emperors were now freed from any need to leave the frontiers for Rome. Carus had also attempted to strengthen his position by appointing his sons as Caesars, his deputies and successors. The elder, Carinus, was given charge of Italy and the western provinces. The younger, Numerian, accompanied his father on campaign against the Sarmatians and then on the invasion of Persia. When his father died he was declared emperor, but while the army was returning home he was found dead in his litter. The chief suspect was the Praetorian Prefect, Lucius Aper, but he was soon challenged by the commander of the household cavalry, one Diocles.