The number of well-preserved, archaeologically known Buddhist sites greatly increases between 100 and 600 CE. This is particularly true in the Gangetic Plain, where numerous stupas and viharas were either constructed or extensively refurbished during this time. Numerous new monasteries were also founded in the peninsula, most notably at Nagarjunakonda, an important southern center of Buddhism located in central Andhra Pradesh along the Krishna River. Many of the monasteries constructed or refurbished in this period were located near, though set apart from, major pilgrimage centers. The large pilgrimage stupas from this period and their association with monasteries will be discussed in Chapter 6. Here I focus on the development of Buddhist monastic architecture and the implications of these developments on Buddhist monasticism.
Overall, Buddhist monasteries in the first millennium CE followed a fairly homogenous layout and ground plan throughout India—a large square enclosure, with monastic cells arrayed around the periphery (see Figures 5.2). Monastic cells opened onto a central courtyard, which often contained a central shrine. Finally, Buddha images were commonly placed within a monastic cell opposite the main entrance to the vihara. Within this common plan existed some significant variation, attributable to
Along the east coast of India, from Orissa down to Tamil Nadu, are the remains of numerous Buddhist monasteries (see Figure 5.3). While most of the Buddhist remains in Orissa date to the sixth century or later, some of the later monuments at Lalitagiri, for example, may overlay earlier constructions dating to the fourth century GE or, possibly, even earlier (Chauley 2000). Farther south, several monasteries along the coast of Andhra Pradesh, discussed in Chapter 4, continued to be used (e. g., Salihundam and Sankaram). Other Buddhist monasteries were founded further inland, particularly along the Krishna and Godavari Rivers. Among the most important of these were several monasteries located at the capitol of the Ikshvaku Dynasty, in what is now called Nagarjunakonda (Sarkar 1966). While named for the Mahayana scholar Nagarjuna, it is not possible to know if Nagarjuna was ever a resident.
What is known is that Nagarjunakonda was a major early center of Mahayana Buddhism in South India in the third and fourth centuries GE. During that time, roughly thirty Buddhist sites were constructed, including several monasteries of sects that are critical in the early development of Mahayana teachings. Extensive excavations at Nagarjunakonda preceded the construction of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam in the 1960s (Sarkar 1966; R. Subrahmanyam et al. 1975). Prior to the inundation of the area, several of the most prominent Buddhist remains were moved to a hilltop—now an island in the reservoir. For the most part, the monasteries at Nagarjunakonda follow the same format as monasteries throughout India, though in some cases apsidal chaityas were incorporated into the viharas (see Figure 5.2). Excavations at Nagarjunakonda also revealed numerous Buddha images, making the site one of the early centers of Buddha imagery in India.
On the west coast of the Peninsula, several rock-cut Buddhist monasteries were founded or expanded beginning in the late fifth and early sixth centuries GE. This followed a general hiatus in construction after the second century GE, corresponding to a period of weak political power in the Deccan. Among the rock-cut monasteries founded or expanded in this period are Ajanta, Aurangabad, Ellora, and Bagh (Dehejia 1972; Nagaraju 1981). At Ajanta, twenty-one newly carved viharas and two chaityas expanded on the nucleus of five earlier viharas and chaityas. While all of the new constructions were produced under the auspices of the Vakatakas, there is significant scholarly debate as to when new constructions began at Ajanta, and how long the new construction program lasted. Until recently, most scholars believed that the earliest new constructions
Figure 5.4: Cave 19 at Ajanta (c. fifth or sixth century ce)
Courtesy of the Digital South Asia Library and the American Institute of Indian Studies (Accession No. 61591).
At Ajanta began somewhere in the mid-fifth century, and lasted until the mid-sixth century. More recently, Spink (2006) has argued that all of caves were carved in roughly twenty years between 460 and 480 bce.
The new constructions at Ajanta began with the construction of an elaborate chaitya, Cave 19 (see Figure 5.4). In terms of the layout, Cave 19 is almost identical to the earlier chaityas at Ajanta—it is an apsidal hall, with a stupa at one end and a circumambulatory path along the periphery, demarcated by columns. The key difference between Cave 19 and earlier rock-cut chaityas in the Western Ghats is the far greater ornamentation, and the carving of a Buddha image on the front of the drum and anda of the rock-cut stupa. Like the first and second century andas discussed in Chapter 4, the anda in Cave 19 was raised above the plane of the drum, implying mass that is not present. A short time after the carving of Cave 19, a second new chaitya was carved at Ajanta (Cave 26). While more richly ornamented than Cave 19, it follows the same general layout and also combines a 3/5 anda and Buddha image on its central stupa.
Critically, these two rock-cut chaityas are among the last constructed in the Western Ghats. Thus, the slightly later sixth century GE monasteries at Aurangabad, Ellora, and Bagh omitted chaityas entirely.
The viharas at Ajanta follow the general format of Buddhist monasteries throughout India—square courtyards surrounded by monastic cells with a Buddha image installed in a large cell opposite the entrance. In contrast to Ajanta, at Bagh a stupa was placed in the perfumed chamber of a vihara (Cave 4) rather than a Buddha image (Mitra 1971). The placement of the stupa within the perfumed chamber at Bagh helps demonstrate the ritual equivalence of images and stupas for the sangha in the sixth century GE. The viharas at both Bagh and Ajanta are also heavily decorated with beautiful and elaborate frescoes. This tradition continued in the viharas at Aurangabad and Ellora, though in these later viharas the frescoes are not nearly as well preserved. Critically, however, there was a slight shift in the layout of some of the viharas at Aurangabad and Ellora. At Ajanta and Bagh, the cell containing the Buddha image or stupa was carved into the wall opposite the main entrance to the vihara. The same format was
Figure 5.5: Circumambulation in Aurangabad Cave 7 (c. sixth century GE; after Fergusson and Burgess 1880)
Used in some of the viharas at Aurangabad and Ellora. However, in some of the viharas at Aurangabad and Ellora, paths were carved behind the cell containing the Buddha image, allowing the entire cell containing the Buddha to be circumambulated (see Figure 5.5). When viewed in light of the omission of chaityas at Aurangabad and Ellora—and the circumam-bulatory paths that chaityas contained—it appears that the sangha in the Western Ghats was attempting to preserve the ability to circumambulate the Buddha, but had shifted their ritual interests from stupas to Buddha images.
Perhaps the most surprising element of Buddhist monastic architecture in India between 100 and 600 ce is its homogeneity. Despite the known proliferation of Buddhist sects, despite the advent of Mahayana Buddhism, and despite the widespread fragmentation of political and economic powers in India, Buddhist monasteries across India look pretty much the same—square courtyards with cells arrayed around the periphery. The only significant developments in Buddhist monasticism over the period were the gradual abandonment of stupas and chaityas at purely monastic centers (e. g., Aurangabad, Ellora), the creation of distinct and separate monastic spaces at pilgrimage centers (e. g., Sarnath) and the progressive inclusion of Buddha images within the viharas across India. Though these architectural and artistic developments were seemingly slight, they had profound effects on the way in which the sangha interacted with both the Buddha and the laity.
World History
