The history of the exploitation of aquatic resources is obscured by the frustrating paucity of well-reported faunal collections from prehistoric sites in the greater Indus region. However, at the exemplary site of Mehrgarh the remains of fish were rare despite the proximity of the Bolan River, and the reported remains from other Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in the Indo-Iranian borderlands do not suggest a tradition of exploiting riverine resources. The absence of fish in the coastal settlement of Balakot during the pre - and Early Harappan periods suggests that the pastoralists from Baluchistan who settled there had no interest in the locally available marine resources. In contrast, the
Presence of seashells at inland sites such as Mehrgarh, brought there through exchange networks, indicates that from early times there were coastal communities who did exploit marine resources. Similarly, fish were regularly caught by hunter-gatherer communities in the subcontinent, as is vividly shown in the rock art at Bhimbetka and other Central Indian sites. Fish bones were among the faunal remains at Bagor, and in the Hakra period site of Jalilpur on the Ravi River terra-cotta net sinkers indicate that fishing was practiced. In all probablility, the pre - and Early Harappan inhabitants of Gujarat exploited marine resources: Although faunal remains have not been reported from their settlements, the coastal location of sites such as Padri and Somnath and the island situation of Dholavira are suggestive, as is the presence of fishhooks at Padri.
Early riverine and coastal communities in the greater Indus region are likely to have developed boats and the other technology needed for exploiting marine and freshwater resources. It is probable that the Early Harappan farming settlers gradually acquired from indigenous communities the skills, knowledge, and technology to exploit the sea, rivers, and lakes, and by the Harappan period fishing was integrated with other aspects of the economy. For example, the Harappan inhabitants of Balakot, in contrast to their earlier shunning of the sea, developed an economy based heavily on the exploitation of marine fish and shellfish.
Fish and Fishing
An important source of food for the Harappans was fish: Large numbers of fish bones have been recovered from the Harappan settlements whose faunal remains have been studied. Some bones came from fish 2 meters or more in length, and it is likely that fish were an important source of protein. At Balakot fish provided around half the faunal component of the diet. The faunal remains from the coastal settlement of Balakot and from Harappa far inland near the Ravi River have been examined in detail, providing a complementary picture of the exploitation of marine and freshwater resources.
A large selection of marine fish were exploited at Balakot, including requiem sharks, stingrays, wolf herring, sea bream, mullet, and drum, but the villagers concentrated on a few species, particularly marine catfish, mackerel, and various types of grunt, the latter around 90 percent of the fish caught. The range of fish varied seasonally, with few species being available in winter but many coming in close to shore in the summer and autumn to spawn, making them easy to catch. The grunt, however, spawns during the winter and could be easily caught with stationary nets set up in the shallow waters of Sonmiani Bay where Balakot is located. A similar range of marine fish was found at Allahdino, along with freshwater catfish. The Harappans probably used similar techniques to those of modern fishers in the region, who catch some fish close to the shore and others farther out to sea, using fixed nets particularly for large fish and cast nets for smaller ones; some nets are also set on the sea bottom to catch crabs and other crustacea. Modern fishers also practice trolling: crisscrossing an area of sea towing a series of lures and hooks from the boat.
Farther south in Kutch, fish might also have been caught, as today, using tidal traps into which the fish swam when the tide was up and in which they were caught as the tide went out. Analyses of the types and condition of the shellfish from coastal settlements confirm that fishing also took place from offshore boats.
The remains from Harappa show that the range of freshwater fish was more restricted than that available from the sea. Here the main species exploited were four types of catfish, though various types of carp, snakeheads, and spiny eels were also important. The distribution of the remains at Harappa shows that some households consumed large quantities of fish while others ate little. At Nausharo in the Bolan Valley, carp and catfish were also the species of fish caught.
The banks of the main Indus River were too friable and the current too swift to make it safe to fish there, but fish such as carp and catfish were caught in the backwaters and smaller channels, where water flow was slow, particularly during the winter and spring. The Saraswati was far less turbulent, and it is probable that the inhabitants of many of the settlements along its banks would have caught fish from it. Channels cut for irrigation or drainage might also have yielded fish. Fishing could also have taken place in the rivers and streams of Baluchistan; the pools that form in the dry season on the Hab River in the Kulli province are today a rich source of fish. Fishing was also a major occupation in the oxbows and lakes of the Indus Basin, particularly Lake Manchar, but also in the seasonal dhands whose fishstocks were replenished by the annual flood-waters. During the inundation itself, however, no fishing was possible.
Nets were the principal fishing device, used on the side channels, oxbows, and lakes. The bottom of the nets were weighted down with terra-cotta net sinkers, similar to large beads but exhibiting a characteristic wear pattern from the chaffing of the string used to secure them in place along the edge of the net. These have been found in many Indus settlements, from the great city of Harappa to the small village of Kanewal. A sherd of pottery from Harappa depicts a fishing scene, in which a man stands among fish, holding one or several nets, while along the foot of the scene runs a large net presumably surrounding an area of water in which the fish have been trapped.
During the period immediately after the inundation when the rivers were still high and turbulent, fish could be caught in the shallow areas along the banks of the main rivers, using hook and line. While simple hooks had been in use since earlier times, the Harappans were probably responsible for developing the barbed fishhook, which also had a looped end to which the line was fastened. Copper fishhooks have been found at Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Padri, and Chanhu-daro. An example of exceptional size from Padri in Saurashtra suggests that very large marine fish were being taken, presumably from substantial boats.
Examination of the cut marks on fish bones at Balakot shows that they were butchered with knives probably of copper rather than stone. The heads were removed, probably to be boiled up in a soup or stew until the meat fell off. The virtual absence of all bones but the vertebrae at Allahdino suggests that the
A bone of the sua fish (Protonibea diacanthus), from the coastal settlement of Balakot where fishing was important. This fish comes inshore to spawn during the summer monsoon period when it is readily caught, even today, by fishermen using traditional methods. Cut marks on this bone reveal details of butchery which can be compared with modern butchery practices to suggest patterns of exploitation. (William R. Belcher)
Fish were butchered before they were brought to the site by nonresident fishers; in contrast, the full representation of bones at Balakot indicates that this was a fishing settlement where the catch was processed.
Preserved Fish
As well as being eaten fresh, fish were dried or salted so that they could be eaten later or elsewhere. At the tiny site of Prahag, west of Balakot along the Makran coast, where sherds of Harappan and local pottery are known, evidence was found of fish processing on a large scale. Skate, jack, grunt, marine catfish, drum, and small shark appear to have been caught locally, probably from boats using a hook and line. They were then cut open and the heads and tails removed, as well as part of the vertebral column of the skates
And sharks; they may then have been preserved by salting or drying. Dolphins were also caught, and the people of this region also ate sheep, goats, and gazelle, perhaps reserving the dried fish for export. Bones of marine catfish and jack at Harappa show that preserved fish was transported even this far inland, more than 850 kilometers from the coast. Similarly, abundant bones of shark, marine catfish, drum, sea bream, and jack at Miri Qalat in Baluchistan, 120 kilometers of difficult terrain distant from the sea, also provide evidence of a flourishing trade in preserved marine fish: In modern Baluchistan dried fish are used not only for human food but also as fodder for animals. Probably only a limited range of species were distributed in this way. Grunt (Pomadasys hasta), the predominant fish at Balakot, are often preserved by salting in modern times.
The settlement of Padri in Saurashtra has been suggested by its excavator, Vasant Shinde, to have been a salt-making village in the Harappan period. Salt making is one of the local industries there today, and the flat area on the southern side of the Harappan village was ideally suited for this purpose because it was submerged at high tide but protected from lesser tides by a high natural barrier. This allowed seawater to be captured and left to evaporate in small embanked plots, a process taking a little over a week. Shinde suggests that the well-made, sturdy, nonporous storage jars found at Padri were designed for transporting salt. If so, preserving fish and perhaps other meat may have been one of the main purposes for which this industry was intended.
World History
