When his brother Rheometalces died sometime in the later years of Augustus’s reign (27 B. C.E.-14 C. E.), Thrace was divided between Rhescuporis and the old ruler’s son, Cotys. By 19 C. E., Rhescuporis was plotting to take over the entire realm. Despite the intervention of Rome, Cotys was trapped and killed. Emperor Tiberius ordered L. Pomponius Flaccus to bring Rhescuporis to Rome, where he was accused by Coty’s widow, Antonia Tryphaena. For his crime he was sentenced to exile in Alexandria and later put to death.
Rhetoric An art form brought to Rome from Greece, only to suffer a general decline in skill and originality with the advent of the Roman Empire. Rhetorical speaking, or persuasive speechmaking, that was aimed at achieving acclaim or some purpose saw considerable development during the Republic, nurturing such professional practitioners as Cicero. Training in rhetoric was available only in a rhetor’s school, and it was considered essential for an educated individual aspiring to public office to be versed fully in rhetorical oration. This process changed with the rise of the emperors. No longer was speaking in the Senate or as an advocatus of the court the surest road to success. Favoritism and flattery of a ruler became more expedient tools.
Rhetoric did not die, however, for it found other avenues of acceptance. The most eminent and, arguably the least redeeming was the declamatio or recitation in public of literary creations. Declamations had always been a useful method of teaching, but they were influenced by a pandering toward fashionable tastes. This corruption was made worse by Asinius Pollio, reportedly the first rhetorician to give his declamatio to an invited audience. Composed of the elite of Roman society, the private crowd could reward rhetors who pleased its members with influence and status. No longer was rhetoric aimed at influencing the public good; it was now focused on entertainment and public favor. Over time the declamatio came to be called recitationes, while the original term returned to its more formal legal meaning. Nevertheless, rhetoric had lost the vitality of its Republican roots and came to be used only by a dwindling number of experts.
Rhine Called the Rhenus by the Romans, this river rises in the Swiss Alps and flows over 800 miles northward to the sea; one of the great dividing lines between the Roman Empire and the barbarian world. It first came to the attention of the Romans when the German leader ARIOVISTUS crossed westward over the river and menaced much of eastern Gaul. Although he was defeated, his vanquisher, Julius Caesar, perceived the threat coming from the Suebi and was determined to cross the river. This he did in 55 B. C.E., using a bridge of boats; he crossed again in 53.
Subsequently, the Roman legions passed over the Rhine frequently, especially during the reign of Augustus (27 B. C.E.-14 C. E.), when imperial policy was aimed at transforming inner Germany into a province. These hopes were destroyed with General Varus in 9 C. E. in the TEUTOBURG FOREST. Domitian’s successful operations against the chatti in 83 gave Rome an extension into Germania Superior that carried beyond the Rhine, the so-called agri decumates. Using the limes along the entire border, Rome held this territory for centuries. Then instability on the frontiers brought the loss of the agri. Once more the Rhine was the natural termination point of civilization and Roman influence. Beyond lurked a barbaric and increasingly hostile collection of peoples.
Rhodes Most easterly of the islands in the Aegean, situated off the coast of Caria in Asia Minor. From the time of Vespasian (ruled 69-79 C. E.), Rhodes, known as Rho-dus, was attached to the province of ASIA. The island had a long history of excellent relations with Rome, helping in the Macedonian and Mithridatic Wars. Supporting the cause of Julius Caesar during the Civil War, Rhodes was plundered mercilessly by Gaius Cassius in 42 b. c.e. but was richly rewarded by Augustus for its loyalty. Starting in 6 B. C.E., Tiberius took up residence on the island in a self-imposed exile from the disappointments of Rome; he would depart to become adopted by Augustus in 4 c. E. Because of their act of crucifying several Roman citizens, the Rhodians were deprived of their independence in 44 C. E. by Claudius. Appealing to Nero in 53, they were given their own government again, although prosperity was never actually attained. An earthquake in 155 C. E. flattened most of the island, and henceforth it remained one of the least developed corners of the empire.
Rhoemetalces I (d. 12 c. e.) King of Thrace Originally a dynastic ruler, Rhoemetalces was recognized as king as a result of siding with Octavian (Augustus) during his war with Marc ANTONY (c. 31 b. c.e.). With the help of Roman arms and influence, he was able to remain on the throne, serving as a reliable client to Augustus. Around 11 b. c.e., however, the tribe of the Bessi, under Vologaesus, burst upon Thrace, driving Rhoemetalces from the country and killing his son Rhescuporis. Only through direct imperial intervention and three years of fighting did he regain his crown. Rhoemetalces returned the favor of the Romans by defeating the rebelling Dalmatians in 6 C. E. Upon his death, Thrace was divided between his brother Rhescuporis and his son Cotys.
Ricimer, Flavius (d. 472 c. e.) Magister militum from 456 to 472 and Patrician from 457
Ricimer was the most pivotal imperial figure in the Western Empire during its final years. An Arian of mixed barbarian blood, he had a Suebian father and a Visigoth mother who was related to King Wallia of the Visigoths. His rise was typical of the gifted generals of the time, reflecting political power gained through his defeat of a
Vandal fleet in 456. For this triumph he was promoted to magister militum of the West. Once entrenched in this position he overthrew Emperor avitus in favor of his own candidate, majorian, crushing Avitus at Placentia in October of 456. By 457 he had the title of patricius, or patrician, presumably receiving it with the blessing of the Eastern court on February 28 of that year. Majorian became emperor with his help, but when the ruler outlived his usefulness, Ricimer deposed him in 461. After Majorian’s execution, he was replaced by libius severus. Unacceptable to Constantinople, Severus nevertheless remained on the throne from 461 to 465, solely because Ricimer wanted him there.
The magister militum spent the next years scheming against a rival, marcellinus of dalmatia, while defending against attacks by geiseric, king of the Vandals and Alans, who invaded Italy unsuccessfully. In 465 he removed Severus (perhaps by poison) and administered the empire for nearly two years, accepting a new emperor only in 467—anthemius. To ensure his position in the new regime, Ricimer married Anthemius’s daughter Alypia in 467 at Rome. Despite his supremacy in the empire he carefully avoided participation in the doomed expedition of 468 against the Vandals of Africa. This lack of concern for the expedition may have led to his rupture with Anthemius in 470. Temporarily reconciled in 472, another break took place. With the help of his nephew, Gundobad the Burgundian, Ricimer had the emperor put to death. Another weak successor was adorned with the purple in April of 472, but Ricimer died several weeks later, leaving the West in total chaos. Of all the magistri militum, Ricimer was one of the most destructive. He forced Libius Severus to surrender stretches of imperial territory to the barbarians and so routinely murdered his royal masters that no coherent policy or stability was ever possible while he lived.
Ricomer (d. 393 c. e.) Magister militum from 388 to 393 Ricomer, or Richomeres, was a Frank by descent, becoming an officer in the service of Emperor gratian. By 377 he was a comes domesticorum and was sent to Thrace to help Emperor valens in fighting the Goths. He was one of the few survivors of the battle of adrianople in 378. Appointed magister militum in 383, he took control of the East, meeting at Antioch the famed orator libanius, who subsequently became his friend. Consul in 384, he was made commanding general of the East (comes et magister utriusque militiae) four years later. Ricomer was employed against MAGNUS maximus and emerged as an important adviser to the emperor Theodosius i. Ricomer introduced his nephew arbogast to the later Western usurper, euge-NIUS, whom Arbogast would support. Like these two, Ricomer adhered to paganism.
Roads The Romans had learned the value of superb roadmaking in their expansion in italy, and later used a vast network of travel routes as one of the most important aspects of domination of the Mediterranean world and the Roman Empire. An oft quoted maxim that all roads led to Rome was, indeed, correct, save that to the Romans all roads led from Rome. According to the Roman system, a gilded pillar was placed by Emperor Augustus in the FORUM ROMANUM to mark the beginning point of a radiating transportation system clearly marked by milestones from the Eternal City No journeyer could ever forget that he walked or rode upon an imperial domain.
The Roman imperial roads were a benefit for all residents of the empire and served a wide variety of purposes. The legions who most often created the roads used this efficient network to pass through provinces quickly to reach frontier posts or crisis spots. By marching through even mountainous terrain and along carefully designed ways (viae), there was no place they could not reach or defend. Campaigns very often centered on reducing an enemy country by destroying what was wild or natural. in Britain and Germany the local tribes were subdued and pacified by relentless roadmaking, cutting up the tribal boundaries, and isolating the tribes.
Once the legions had finished their tasks, administrators moved into a new province. soldiers were used once more to refine the communications system, uniting all provincial areas to the main thoroughfare before linking them with the interprovincial viae. Progressively complex, this method allowed even the smallest province to stay directly in touch with the emperor, via the most advanced system in the world at the time for sending messages and reports—the cursus publicus (the Imperial Post).
One of the parallel developments with the cursus was the rise of roadside inns, taverns, and hotels. Mutationes were places where horses were changed, while mansiones offered a weary adventurer a bed for the night with food. Soon the roads were filled with traders and merchants bringing their wares to new markets. Economic expansion brought increased wealth to imperial coffers by means of taxes and duties, while fostering the ideals of internationalism so important to the Pax Romana.
Provinces varied as to how much roadwork was necessary to transform them into suitable imperial lands. Germany, Britain, Africa, parts of Spain and wilder sections of Asia Minor, such as Galatia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia, all needed extensive amounts of capital and effort. Regions with long histories needed only minor alterations. Among these were the provinces of Asia, Greece, Macedonia, and even Gaul. Outside of italy, with its famous viae—the Appian, Flaminian, and others—the Roman Empire possessed several other important roads, including the impressive Via Egnatia, running from the Black sea through Macedonia, all the way to the Adriatic port of Dyrrhachium. it was a lifeline for communications, not only for Achaea and Macedonia but also for the entire Danubian frontier. Trade passed from the western and eastern provinces, providing income for such cities as Nicopolis and Thessalonica.
Several books were published concerning the imperial roads, including the Antonine Itinerary and the Jerusalem Itinerary. The first is from the late third century C. E., detailing the main transportation routes through the empire, including the distances. The Jerusalem Itinerary, of the fourth century C. E., helped Christians find their way to Jerusalem.
See VIAE for major roads in Italy.
Robigus A Roman deity of nature whose main attributes were destructive powers through rust or blight. He could ruin crops if not appeased with the sacrifice of a sheep and a dog. Robigus (also called Robigo) was associated with Mars, hence all ceremonies in honor of him, especially the Robigalia, his festival on April 25, were under the direction of the Flamen Martialis.
See also flamens.
Roles A tribal leader of the getae, who lived just north of the Danube River, near the Black sea. He came to the aid of the Roman General Marcius Licinius crassus (2), in his war against Deldo and the Bastarnae in 29 b. c.e. In turn, Crassus helped Roles to vanquish a Getae rival named Dapyx. Roles visited Augustus later and was honored. subsequently, Roles and the Getae were stable clients of Rome on the eastern Danube.
Roma The divine personification of the city of Rome, a means of expressing in religious terms the greatness of the Eternal City, of the empire and the Republic. Through the use of coins bearing the likeness of a beautiful woman, and through temples erected in her honor, Roma impressed upon the world the status of the Eternal City. she had a temple in Rome, constructed during the reign of Hadrian, and was worshiped by the Greeks as well.
Romanus (fl. late fourth century c. e.) Comes Africae from 364 to 373
Romanus was in charge of Africa during the reign of VALENTINIAN I (364-375 C. E.). He defended lepcis magna from barbarian attack but was accused by the inhabitants of failing in his duty The resulting proceedings were suppressed through the use of influence at court. Later arrested, he relied upon the political leader merobaudes to save him. The writers Ammianus Marcellinus and ZOSIMUS were extremely hostile to him.
See also gildo.
Rome Capital of the Roman Empire from the reign of AUGUSTUS (27 B. C.E.-14 C. E.) until that of Diocletian (284-305 C. E.), and one of the most famous cities in history Rome also came to symbolize the achievements of the empire in art, history, politics, culture, religion, and engineering. It was the first of the great urban centers, encountering, centuries before its time, the travails of crowded life, pollution, and social unrest.
GEOGRAPHY
According to the traditions, Rome was founded in 753 B. C.E. by Romulus and his twin brother, Remus. Under Romulus’s guidance and that of the succeeding kings of Rome, what was once but a small village of shepherds grew strong and well organized. Rome was situated in the Italian region of Latium, approximately 16 miles from the sea. The two outstanding features of the Roman environment were the Tiber River and the hills. The Tiber flowed down from the Apennines in the northeast and made a cursive bend as it reached the Tiber Valley. Near the Capi-toline Hill there was the important island, Insula Tibe-rina. Over the years additional territory was added until finally, in the time of King Servius Tullius (578-535 B. C.E.), Rome comprised the Seven Hills.
Primitive Rome was centered around the Esquiline and Quirinal hills. Later, the Capitoline Hill emerged as the very heart of the Roman establishment, with its magnificent temples; the Palatine contained residences and eventually the homes of the emperors. Between them lay the area of the Ve l a b rum, leading to the Ti ber. The river was on the entire western side, with the Pincian Hill to the east. To the south of the Pincian, the hills and valleys lead all the way to the Caelian Hill. Also in this group were the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills. Upon these were g a rdens, baths, the castra praetoria and, at the foot of the Quirinal, the Subura. Between the Esquiline and Palantine was a valley, the Velia. To the west was another valley, in which the Fora of the Caesars were built. Toward the east, past the end of the Via Sacra, was an open area, s u rrounded by he Esquiline and Caelian hills and used by N ero for his Golden House. The Flavians filled in Nero’s pond and erected the Colosseum on the site.
Beneath the Palatine were two areas of further interest. The Circus Maximus was in a depression between the Palatine and the Aventine. The Aventine Hill was an excellent place to see the separation of classes, for the poor lived at the base of the hill, and the wealthy had villas at the top, with a view of the city. Across the Tiber were the Vatican and Janiculus hills. The Vatican had its own Christian history, while the Janiculus played a minor role in Roman events with its early fortress.
Rome relied upon the mighty river Tiber for defense from the Etruscans but also for the divine patronage of the god TIBER, called Volturnus. At first all bridges across it were made of wood to allow the Romans to cut them down in time of attack. As the city grew in power, the bridges (pons) were built of stone. Numerous emperors sought to improve transportation out of the city with additional bridges. Most likely the earliest of bridges was the wooden structure of the Pons Sublicius, spanning the Tiber just below Insula Tiberina.
Interestingly the Pons Sublicius retained its wooden material even at a later time, when stone was the principal medium of construction. This was probably for religious reasons. Insula Tiberina was important to Rome, and thus two bridges connected it to the two banks—the Pons Fabricius on the east and the Pons Cestius on the west. The Pons Aemilius which connected the island to the Pons Sublicius was the first such bridge of stone. It was built around the middle of the second century B. C.E., marking a change in Roman engineering. Only one other span was notable from the days of the Republic, the Pons Milvius, or the Milvian Bridge, several miles to the north of Rome along the Via Flaminia.
GOVERNANCE
In 509 B. C.E., the Roman kings were ousted in favor of the CONSULS, the SENATE and the people of Rome. For the next 478 years the Eternal City was the very heart of the Republic, from which Rome launched its campaigns of expansion in Italy and throughout the Mediterranean. Here, too, the ambitious plotted schemes that came to fruition in the first century B. C.E. with civil wars of the FIRST AND SECOND TRIUMVIRATES raging off and on from 49 to 31 B. C.E. In that final year, at actium, Octavian defeated Marc Antony. Within four years he was called Augustus, and the Roman Empire was born. As princeps, or first man of the state, Augustus undertook the task of transforming Rome into the foremost city of the world.
The Augustan policy of imperial aggrandizement was the end result of careful thought and planning. Rome, with its many entertainments, glorious structures and tributes to Roman triumphs, was to be a model, the standard by which every provincial community would be measured. The IMPERIAL CULT was declared officially to be the cult of Roma et Augustus; as the emperors were to be worshiped, their abode was to be held in awe.
With the rise of the empire, the city was divided into 14 smaller regiones, replacing the four that were founded by Servius Tullius many centuries before; they were placed under the care of a magistrate, who, in turn, also looked after the so-called vici or districts within each of the regiones. They included all of Rome within the Servian Walls, but also went beyond them, even across the Tiber. The 14 regiones were I Porta Capena, II Caelimon-tium, III Isis et Serapis, IV Templum Pacis, V Esquiliae, VI Alta Semita, VII Via Lata, VIII Forum Romanum, IX Circus Flaminus, X Palatium, XI Circus Maximus, XII Piscina Publica, XIII Aventinus, XIV Trans Tiberim.
A new system of local division could do little to ease the growing congestion in the streets or the constant threat of fire. Therefore, over the entire city administration the emperor appointed the praefectus urbi, the prefect OF THE CITY, charged with trying cases within Rome and with maintaining the peace, aided by the URBAN COHORTS. In cases of emergency he could also use the VIGILES, the firefighters in the capital, formed to contain
A reconstruction of Rome in the early second century C. E. (Hulton/GettyArchive)
Any serious conflagration before it could spread, or even the dreaded praetorian guard. The Praetorians were at first not kept in Rome, but from the time of tiberius and his Praetorian prefect sejanus, the cohorts were stationed in the Castra Praetoria, east of the Viminal Hill on the Agger of Servius.
World History
