Herodotus, in his Histories, described mummification. The dead person's family approached an embalmer, who offered three levels of service. He displayed small models so the family could see how the mummy would look, and they agreed on a price.
For the top-of-the-line mummification, the skull was first cleaned by removing the brain through the nose using a long, thin iron hook. The skull cavity was then rinsed with chemicals.
Then, using a flint knife, the embalmer made a large incision in the abdomen. The lungs, liver, stomach, and intestines were removed and washed in a chemical bath. These organs were then packed, along with spices and natron (a sodium mineral used for drying), into four canopic jars, for placement in the dead person's tomb under the care of goddesses Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Selkit.
Finally, the heart was removed and the emptied torso was cleaned with palm wine and fragrant spices. When it was ready, the heart was placed back into the chest cavity, along with a heart scarab. (Often made of gold and jewels, this was a favorite target of tomb robbers, who hacked open mummies to get them.)
The mostly empty torso was now filled with rolls of linen, sawdust, and a mixture of myrrh, cassia, spices, and natron. The body was repacked and padded until the embalmer achieved what he felt was a natural look.
For special corpses, such as kings, there were extra steps to be taken at this point. For example, When Rameses II was mummified, his nose was packed with peppercorns to preserve its unique shape, his fingernails and hair were colored with henna—a natural reddish dye, symbol of life—and his abdominal incision was covered with a solid gold plaque.
For all mummies, the next step was to stitch up the incision in the torso. Now the body had to be dried. The embalmer laid out the body on a six-foot-wide table covered with natron, and piled more natron over the body to cover it completely.
After 70 days of drying, the body was uncovered, thoroughly washed, and anoint it with precious oils and fragrant ointments. Then is was wrapped head to toe in several layers of fine linen strips soaked in gum. The fingers and toes were wrapped individually, and for really expensive mummifications solid gold toenail and fingernail covers were put in place, and the tongue was replaced with a solid gold artificial tongue. During the wrapping process, amulets, charms, and scraps of papyrus with magical spells were placed between the layers of linen.
For less-expensive mummification, the embalmer simply injected oil of cedar into the corpse and packed it in natron. The oil dissolved everything but the skin and bones. After 70 days, the oil was drained off, carrying away the dissolved flesh. The dried corpse was then returned to the family for burial, with no linen wrapping.
Memos to Mummies TO Museums
Many of the ancient Egyptian papyri held by Duke University in Durham, North Carolina, came from mummy car-tonnage from a cemetery near Herakleopolis, south of modern Cairo. Carton-nage is a covering of several layers of papyrus paper used on some Late Period mummies. After being wrapped with linen strips, the mummy was covered with sheets of cartonnage and coated with a thick layer of plas-ter. The papyri used for cartonnage often came from recycling bins in Egyptian government and administrative offices.
Daily meals to the spirits. These practical ka servants removed the food at the end of each day and took it home for supper. In case ka servants neglected their duties, every prudent tomb owner had menus of his favorite meals inscribed on the walls of his tomb. In a pinch, his ka could magically bring the menu items into existence.
A modern Egyptian tradition called el-Arbeiyin recalls these ancient beliefs. After a person has been dead for 40 days, family members bring food to his grave and distribute it to poor people who have gathered there.
World History
