The Greek poleis

In the Hellenistic period, the political independence of the Greek poleis disappeared, while their internal organization took on new forms. Everywhere, the trend was toward oligarchy, as also in the Greek cities in Asia Minor that had been liberated from the Persians by Alexander the Great and officially declared “democracies.” The abolishment of the democracy in Athens by the Macedonians in 322 BC was a milestone. “Democracy” everywhere from now on meant nothing more than a republican constitution with an assembly of the people that was allowed to elect the magistrates. Those magistrates always

Belonged to the rich elite, a requirement that was more and more formalized by the introduction of property qualifications for candidates. Before and after their term as magistrates, they sat on the city council or boule, the members of which—the bouleutai—as a rule were members for life. In fact, the bouleutai governed the cities, with a handful of elite families usually dominating the boule. The magistracies were few in number, from two to eight, while the number of councilors could vary from a few dozen to five or six hundred. The scope of government remained limited and amateurish, although it regularly encompassed a few more tasks than in earlier times. Apart from the traditional judiciary, now it also included the policing of the city and its surrounding territory, and apart from supervising the markets, the gumnasia and public education, now often there was also a rudimentary healthcare with a doctor in the service of the city. The rest of the citizens acquiesced in the rule of the elite—at least, we know very little of any significant resistance—and appreciated the gifts and benefits of the rich, their euergetism, which became an ingrained part of city politics and was expected of all office holders and even from those rich who happened not to hold any office. This euergetism, as said before, emerged in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; for many, it no doubt mitigated to some degree the loss of actual democracy.

In their external relations, the Greek poleis could be divided into two categories: those under the sovereignty of a Hellenistic king, and those who had managed to preserve something of an independent policy. The first group only enjoyed some internal autonomy and were on the whole subject to a king to whom they usually had to pay taxes as well, albeit sometimes under the fiction of a voluntary contribution; often, they had even to allow a garrison of the king’s troops to be stationed within their walls. Cities belonging to the second group always had to navigate between the main powers and were ultimately at the mercy of the vicissitudes of grand politics. Some favorably situated cities kept their independence for a relatively long time, such as Rhodes; others sought refuge in a federation of cities, such as the Achaean League. In the end, all had to give in to the rising power of Rome. Most Greek cities, having belonged to defeated Hellenistic kingdoms, became part of the new Roman provinces under the supervision of Roman governors. But a few cities, such as Athens and Sparta, were acknowledged by Rome as “free,” “autonomous,” and “friend of the Roman people.” Surrounded by Roman provincial territory, they remained autonomous enclaves where the citizens did not have to pay tribute to Rome and were not submitted to Roman jurisdiction. Although they had in fact lost their independence, their position was often envied by other Greeks.