In Ephraim. The list of Levitical cities is very comprehensive and includes many of the most important cities of ancient Israel (Josh 21).
LEVITICUS, BOOK. The third Book of Moses. Leviticus consists mainly of religious law and law collections. As such it has little bearing on the history of ancient Israel. However, many of the laws reflect customs and habits. Leviticus thereby contributes to the understanding of Israelite society in ancient times. Generally, scholars consider Leviticus to be a late composition belonging to the priestly stratum of the Pentateuch dating from the post-exilic period, although some scholars have recently proposed a date already before the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 587 B. C.E.
LIBNAH. A city in the Judean Shephelah, conquered by Joshua (Josh 10:29-30). It was made part of the tribal territory of Judah (Josh 15:42), and included among the Levitical cities (Josh 21:13). It revolted against Jehoram of Judah (2 Kgs 8:22), and served as base for Sennacherib during his campaign against Hezekiah of Judah in 701 B. C.E. (2 Kgs 19:8). It is identified with either Tell es-Safi close to Beth-Shemesh or Tell Bornat c. 10 kilometers east of the modern city of Kirjath-Gat.
LINEAGE. In anthropological literature, the lineage is a major kinship organization in traditional societies, placed below the level of the tribe but over the family. Anthropologists often see the lineage as the most important political organization in acephalous tribal societies, that is, tribes without a centralized authority like a chief. The lineage can be subdivided into so-called “minimal lineages,” and a number of lineages can constitute a maximal lineage counting as much as several thousand people. The members of a lineage reckon their descent from a common ancestor and they should at least in theory know exactly the genealogy that constitutes them as members of their lineage. In scholarly literature about ancient Israel, the lineage is often confused with the clan, partly because the borderline between a clan and a lineage has never been made clear by anthropologists. In Hebrew, the level of the lineage is most likely defined as the mishpaha.
LOT. The nephew of Abraham and the son of Haran who joined his father on his journey to Canaan. When they separated, Lot moved to Sodom but was spared the fate of the Sodomites by the angels of the Lord. Later, Lot became the original ancestor of the Ammonites and Moabites.
LUZ. According to the story about Jacob’s dream, Luz was the ancient name of Bethel (Gen 28:19). The name of Luz is not attested outside of the Old Testament.
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MAACAH (PERSON). The name of several persons—men as well as women—in the Old Testament. Among the best known are Maacah, the Geshurite wife of David and the mother of Absalom, Absalom’s daughter Maacah, the wife of Rehoboam and the mother of King Abijah, and Maacah, the wife of Abijah and the mother of Asa.
MAACAH (PLACE). See ARAM-MAACAH.
MACHIR. The son of Manasseh (Gen 50:23) and the eponymous ancestor of a tribal segment among the Israelite tribes. Machir is considered a segment of the tribe of Manasseh. However, in the Song of Deborah, Machir appears as an independent tribe from the central highland of Palestine. According to other traditions Ma-chir’s home was in Transjordan.
MAHAN AIM. A city in Transjordan where Jacob met the angel of God (Gen 32:2-3—ET 32:1-2). Here he divided his family into two sections before his meeting with Esau (Gen 32:8-11—ET 32:7-10). Both stories function as popular explanations of the name of Maha-naim being interpreted as “two camps.’’ Ishboshet was elected king at Mahanaim (2 Sam 2:8-9), and David retreated to Mahanaim when he was forced out of Jerusalem by Absalom. Here he established his temporary base (2 Sam 17:24-18:5). In the time of King Solomon, Mahanaim was the center of one of his provinces (1 Kgs 4:14). Mahanaim is usually identified with Telul ed Dhabab el-garbi on the Jabbok River. It has never been excavated.
MAKKEDAH. A Canaanite city conquered by Joshua (Josh 10:28). Later it became part of the tribal territory of Judah (Josh 15:41). Although the narrative in Josh 10 indicates a location in the Shephelah west of Jerusalem, its present location is unknown.
MAMRE. The place where Abraham lived and entertained God (Gen 18). It is also the name of one of Abraham’s Amorite allies (Gen 14:13.24). It is normally identified with Ramat el-halil 4 kilometers north of Hebron.
MANASSEH (KING). King of Judah 697-642 B. C.E. In spite of his 55 years on the throne, Manasseh is considered the worst ever king of Judah and he is seen as the main reason for the impending destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, although, historically, Manasseh had nothing to do with these events (2 Kgs 21:1-18). The authors of the Books of Chronicles have problems understanding why Manasseh was allowed such a long reign—in their eyes a sign of the Lord’s blessing. Accordingly they invented a totally unlikely story about an Assyrian attack on Judah that led to the deportation of Manasseh in chains to Babylon. From Babylon Manasseh returned a new and pious man and was allowed to stay on his throne (2 Chron 33:10-13). Assyrian documents from the time of Esarhaddon say that he was a loyal vassal of Assyria, and he was probably able to regain from the Assyrians the parts of Hezekiah’s kingdom which they had removed from Judah in 701 B. C.E. See also SENNACHERIB’S SIEGE OF JERUSALEM.
MANASSEH (TRIBE). Joseph’s first son with Asenat, the daughter of the priest of On (Gen 46:20), the brother of Ephraim and the eponymous ancestor of the tribe of Manasseh. He lost his father’s blessing to his brother, something that has been understood as a reflection on the secondary position of the tribe of Manasseh in comparison to the tribe of Ephraim. On the other hand, all the capitals of the Kingdom of Israel were situated within Manassite territory: Shechem, Tirzah, and Samaria. Manasseh’s tribal territory, between modern Nablus and the Jezreel Valley, was a fruitful area dominated by rolling hills and broad valleys. According to the Old Testament, Manasseh was divided into more segments, and half of the tribe was supposed to have lived in Transjordan under the name of Machir. This may be either a secondary historical development or just literary reflection as other sources indicate that Machir was an independent tribe.
MARESHA. A city in the Judean foothills normally located at Tell Sandahanna. Maresha was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron 11:8). Chronicles also refer to a battle at Maresha between Zera the Nubian and King Asa of Judah (2 Chron 14:8-9). It was partly excavated in 1900.
MAXIMALISM. A term used to refer to the representatives of a school of biblical historians interested in extracting as much historical information from the narratives of the Old Testament as possible. Representing mainstream scholarship at the beginning of the 21st century, they agree with the so-called minimalists on most when it comes to Israel’s history before the introduction of the monarchy but take a firm stand when it comes to the historicity of David and Solomon. Generally, they date the major part of biblical historical literature as included in the Pentateuch and the Deuter-onomistic History to the late pre-exilic period.
MEDIA. A kingdom on the Iranian plateau. Media appears in Assyrian records of the ninth century B. C.E. It was incorporated into the Assyrian Empire in the time of Tiglath-pileser III, but regained its independence c. 650 B. C.E. and became one of the architects of the downfall of Assyria. Its capital was Ekhbatana. About 550 B. C.E. it was incorporated into Cyrus’s empire and became part of Persia. The Old Testament has difficulties distinguishing between the Medes and the Persians, and sometimes reckons a Persian king to be a Median. Thus Darius in the Book of Daniel is called a Mede, although he was a Persian king.
MEGIDDO. An important city at the western end of the Valley of Jezreel, in a strategic position where one of the most important ancient routes through Palestine crosses the Carmel range. The king of Megiddo was killed in a battle with Joshua (Josh 12:21) but, although it was located within the tribal territory of Manasseh (Josh 17:11), the Israelites did not conquer the city (Judg 1:27). The battle between Sisera and Deborah and Barak took place close to Megiddo (Judg 5:19). Solomon included the city in his provincial arrangements (1 Kgs 4:12) and fortified the city (1 Kgs 9:15). Belonging to its later history, Ahaziah died from his wounds at Megiddo, and Joslah was killed by Pharaoh Necho defending the pass through the Carmel at Megiddo (2 Kgs 23:29).
Megiddo is located on Tel Megiddo (previously Tell el Mute-sellim) c. 45 kilometers southeast of modem Haifa. Settlement at Megiddo goes back to the Neolithic period. In the Chalcolithic period an unfortified settlement was established that developed into a heavily fortified city in the Early Bronze Age. After a period of decline, Megiddo achieved new importance in the Middle Bronze Age but was conquered in 1479 B. C.E. by Thutmose III, and remained in Egyptian possession for the duration of the Late Bronze Age. Also in the Iron Age, a city with massive fortifications existed at this place, a victim to the expedition of Pharaoh Shishak. In the time of the Neo-Assyrian (see Assyria and Babylonia) Empire, Megiddo was made the center of the Assyrian province of Magiddu. Megiddo was abandoned in the fourth century B. C.E. Megiddo has for a hundred years been excavated by three major archaeological expeditions, the last one still ongoing.
MEHOLA. The home town of Saul’s son-in-law and second husband of Michal (1 Sam 18:19). See also ABEL.
MELCHIZEDEK. When Abraham returned from his victory over the four great kings (Gen 14), he was met by Melchizedek, the king of Salem and the priest of the most high, and paid tribute to this king (Gen 14:18-20). The story is totally legendary but has been interpreted as a reference to a pre-Israelite Jebussite Jerusalem.
MENAHEM. King of Israel c. 744-736 B. C.E. Menahem resided at Tirzah but turned against Shallum in Samaria who only a month before had murdered his master, King Zechariah, the last king of the House of Jehu. In 738 B. C.E., as Tiglath-pileser III turned to the west, Menahem paid a heavy tribute to the king of Assyria (2 Kgs 15:13-22). The tribute is recorded both in the Old Testament and in Assyrian sources.
MEPHIBOSHET. 1. The invalid son of Jonathan who was spared by David (2 Sam 4:4; 9,1-8). Like the name of Saul’s son Ishboshet, Mephiboshet is a pejorative for his real name, Merib-baal, substituting Baal (name of a god) with boshet, “evil.” He was accused of having supported Absalom and lost half of his possessions (2 Sam 19:24-30).
2. A son of Saul and Rizpah who was on David’s order executed at Gibeon (2 Sam 21:8).
MERAB. Saul’s oldest daughter chosen to become the wife of David. Instead she was given in marriage to Adriel from Mehola (I Sam 18:17-19) while David married Michal, her younger sister. Her children were executed by the Gibeonites on David’s order (2 Sam 21:8-9).
MERENPTAH. Egyptian Pharaoh 1213-1203 B. C.E., the son of Ramesses II, whose victory stele from his fifth year includes the first known mention of Israel in any ancient Near Eastern inscription. See also ISRAEL STELE.
MERODAK-BALADAN. The Hebrew rendering of the Akkadian name Marduk-apal-iddina, the Babylonian adversary of several Assyrian {see Assyria and Babylonia) kings including Sargon and Sennacherib. The Old Testament refers to negotiations between Hezekiah of Judah and Merodak-Baladan, probably in connection with Hezekiah’s rebellion against the Assyrians 705-701 B. C.E. (2 Kgs 20:12-19). He was finally driven out of Babylon by Sennacherib in 701 B. C.E.
MEROM, WATERS OF. The scene of the battle between a Canaan-ite coalition headed by King Jabin of Hazor and the Israelites under Joshua (Josh 11). It was located in Upper Galilee north or northwest of Lake Kinnereth and often identified with Meron, although other candidates have been proposed.
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