Herennius received the traditional education of the court and, when his father became emperor in 249, was made a prince. In 250 he was appointed heir designate of the throne, with the title of Caesar, and in 251 he became Augustus. Herennius joined his father in the wars on the frontier against the Goths, after leading troops himself into Moesia to protect the Danubian provinces. The fighting was fierce. Herennius apparently was at his father’s side in every engagement, including the last one, the disaster at Abrittus in June of 251. This terrible battle, fought with the Goths, cost the empire its ruler and the designated heir, for Herennius died beside his father.
Hermes See mercury.
Hermes Trismegistos A mystic author, generally associated with the Egyptian god Thoth, whose works, collectively known as the Corpus Hermeticum, were divided into 18 books and played a major role in the subsequent evolution of European occultism, hermetic magic, and pseudo-mystical alchemy.
Hermogenes (d. after 138 c. e.) Physician of Emperor Hadrian (r 117-138 c. e.)
Hermogenes was unable to cure Hadrian of dropsy, an ailment that plagued the emperor toward the end of his life. According to the historian Dio, Hermogenes participated in Hadrian’s efforts to end his life prematurely because of his illness. Hadrian summoned Mastor, an iazyges, and instructed Hermogenes to show him where to strike at the heart for a quick death. Hermogenes began the instructions, but Mastor recoiled in terror from the deed. Hadrian then supposedly ate dangerous foods and finally died, saying, “Many doctors have killed a king.”
Hermunduri One of the major tribes of southern Germany (germania), who occupied the region between the Main and the Danube rivers. They were strategically placed between two traditionally hostile people, the CHATTI to the north and the marcomanni to the south. The presence of such enemies and the geographic position of the Hermunduri made an alliance with Rome both desirous and inevitable.
According to the historian Tacitus, the Hermunduri were friends of the Roman Empire to an unusual extent. They could cross borders and enter freely into Germania Superior and Raetia. Commerce between them and the provinces was heavy In 58 C. E., the Hermunduri fought a summer-long battle with the Chatti for control over several important salt springs. The Hermunduri gained victory. Later, Emperor Domitian probably received their help against the Chatti during his campaign in Germany By the middle of the second century c. e. the Hermunduri had joined the ranks of the Marcomanni and their German allies. They made unsuccessful war against Marcus Aurelius, were defeated and subsequently became only one element of the wider barbarian cataclysm growing just beyond the Roman world.
Herod Antipas (d. after 39 c. e.) Son of Herod the Great and his Samaritan wife Matthace
Herod Antipas was king of Galilee and Peraea from 4 B. C.E. to 39 C. E. He was one of the fortunate sons of HEROD THE GREAT, surviving childhood and his father, who died in 4 B. C.E. As an heir, he aspired to the throne of Judaea but had to be satisfied with Galilee and Peraea, ruling as a tetrarch, appointed by Emperor Augustus. Herod did what he could to improve his domain, emulating his father in the construction of cities. Tiberias was founded and Sepphoris improved, although it was intended to be subordinate to Tiberias, where Herod lived in a palace erected for his pleasure. In Peraea he also repaired Betharamptha, renaming it first Livias and then Julias.
Domestically, Herod was not popular with his subjects, inheriting the same local problems that had plagued his father. He compounded these by divorcing the daughter of Aretas IV of Nabataea and marrying the famous HERODIAS. She urged her new husband to ambitious projects but could do little to prevent his suffering a damaging attack in 37 c. e. at the hands of his estranged father-in-law, Aretas, who exacted revenge for his daughter, an act left largely unpunished by Rome.
Tiberius used Herod to negotiate a treaty with Parthia in 36 C. E., but his success in this venture was short-lived. Herodias continued her ambitions, and in 39, Herod made the mistake of asking the new emperor, GAIUS CALIGULA, for the right to rule as an independent king, with ambitions toward the realm of Herod Agrippa I. Caligula deposed him in favor of his friend Herod Agrippa I. Herod Antipas and his wife were sent into exile in Lugdunum (Lyons), his removal probably the result of Herod Agrippa’s plotting. Ironically, Herod Antipas never recovered politically from the two major events of his long reign. First, he was responsible for the arrest and execution of John the Baptist. Later, pontius PILATE sent him a prisoner to be tried, but the tetrarch would have nothing to do with such a religiously prominent figure, Jesus Christ.
Herod the Great (c. 73-4 b. c.e.) King of Judaea from 37 to 4 B. C.E.
Herod was the son of antipater of Idumaea, then a minister of state for the family of Jannaeus Alexander. As his father grew in power and influence in the kingdom, Herod and his brother Phasael attained positions in government. By 47 B. C.E. he was governor of GALILEE, while his brother served as governor of judaea. Both were Roman citizens. Antipater was assassinated in 43 by the religio-political party of Malichus, and Herod immediately destroyed the group, making himself indispensable to the ethnarch of Judaea, the weak Hyrcanus. The next three years were spent by Herod in cementing his position as the successor to Antipater in the kingdom. When Antigonus, the son of the disenfranchised Prince Aristob-ulus, arrived to start a civil war, Herod defeated him and compelled Hyrcanus to give him a share in the royal house, including a marriage to his granddaughter Mari-amne.
Herod was certainly working toward the succession when, in 40, the Parthians invaded Palestine. Hyrcanus was captured, Phasael forced to kill himself and Antigonus placed in control of Jerusalem. Unable to win without allies, Herod retreated to the mountain fastness of MASADA, set its defenses and then journeyed to Rome to ask for the aid of Marc Antony. The general gave him full support and the rights to the throne of Hyrcanus, as ethnarch of Judaea, and the family home of Herod, Idumaea. Three years of fighting followed, including a siege of Jerusalem to evict Antigonus. Finally, with the help of the Roman legions, Herod was firmly in place. He wisely maintained excellent relations with Antony, now master of the East as a member of the Second triumvirate, but avoided losing the kingdom to Cleopatra, who was amassing vast territories for Egypt. Such an association eventually proved ill-advised, when Octavian (Augustus) won the battle of actium in 31 b. c.e.
Herod was able to convince the new emperor that he was trustworthy, and Augustus fitted the Judaean realm into his general plan for the eastern clients of the empire. Not only was Herod confirmed in his role, but also new cities were added to his possessions. Such gifts did nothing to improve his standing with his own subjects, however, for they disliked his Idumaean origins and his policies toward Gentiles, despite the fact that they resulted in prosperity.
The economics of Palestine were improved. Herod built CAESAREA on the coast and granted gifts to foreign communities, especially the Greeks, whom he admired and emulated. The Hellenic character of his court inflamed the conservative Jewish population. His citizens found little joy in his rebuilding of the Great Temple, preferring to focus on his foreign tastes and his harsh and despotic government, so openly answerable to Rome. Herod was beset by domestic troubles and by his own violent nature. Unrest was chronic throughout all of Palestine, and the more ruthlessly the king suppressed it the more widespread it became. Equally, Herod carried his willingness to shed blood into the privacy of the palace. In 30 he murdered his predecessor, Hyrcanus, and the following year executed his wife Mariamne.
His sons were fortunate to survive him, and on some occasions lucky to survive dinner parties. Two sons, aris-TOBULUS AND ALEXANDER, were tried and killed in 7 b. c.e., and another died in 4 b. c.e., just before Herod himself expired after a bout with a terrible illness much like that which later infected Emperor galerius. Augustus commented that it was safer to be one of Herod’s pigs than one of his sons, making note of the Jewish ban on the handling of pork. Following his demise in 4 b. c.e., Herod’s vast realm was divided among his heirs: Antipas, Archelaus, and Philip. Never again would Rome allow such independence on the part of a king of Palestine.
Herodes Atticus (Lucius Vibullius Hipparchus Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes) (c. 104-178 c. e.) Sophist, political figure, and a patron of extreme wealth
Herodes was born in the famed city of Marathon but taught in Rome and gained a considerable reputation for rhetoric. Atticus became the tutor of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Made a consul in 143 and having amassed tremendous riches, Atticus was also heir to the fortune of Hipparchus of Athens, as his grandson. He turned this legacy into a series of gifts to his native land, especially to the city of Athens. In time his generosity overcame his reputation as a sophist. Athens received buildings and other gifts from Atticus, as well as aqueducts, which were erected at Olympia. Atticus also constructed the Odeion of Athens, in honor of his wife who died in 160.
Herodian (d. c. 250 c. e.) Historian and writer Born in Syria, Herodian joined the civil service according to his own account. Little else is known of his early or private life, except that his work displays a strong sense of patriotism toward the empire and a stern moral streak. His lasting achievement was a history of the emperors, from Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III (180-238 C. E.). Its value is limited until the narrative reaches a more contemporary account, for Herodian ignored chronology, historical facts, and events. As a younger associate of DIO, Herodian was overshadowed in his own generation by this great historian. His own history reflected Dio’s mammoth effort, relying upon it for many details but, at times, supplementing Dio’s own writing.
Herodias (d. after 39 c. e.) Famous wife of Herod Anti-pas and daughter of Berenice and Aristobulus, son of Herod the Great
Herodias watched her father being murdered at the order of Herod the Great and then married the half-brother of HEROD ANTIPAS, another Herod called Philip in the account of the Gospel of Mark. Herod Antipas apparently fell in love with his niece and proposed to her. Seeing that his fortunes were rising faster than her husband’s, Herodias accepted his hand. Antipas divorced his first wife, the daughter of Aretas IV of Nabataea, and took Herodias as his wife upon his return from Rome, sometime before the murder of John the Baptist.
The marriage was received with animosity by the people, who accused the royal couple of adultery and incest. Further, Aretas IV launched a retaliatory attack upon Herod in 37, with an invasion of Peraea, a strike that Rome did not avenge. Herodias was depicted as harsh, demanding, and scheming. She was supposed to have driven her husband into the ambitious plans that eventually cost him his throne. In 39, she convinced Herod to ask for greater control of Galilee and Peraea, which resulted in the two of them being charged with treasonous conspiracies. They were deposed and exiled to Lugdunum (Lyons) by Gaius Caligula.
Herodion Fortress built by Herod the Great, 60 furlongs south of JERUSALEM, upon an artificial hill; served as one of his major defensive sites in judaea. During Herod’s war of reconquest against the Parthians (40-37 B. C.E.), he defeated a Parthian force near the hill. To commemorate this triumph a new fortress was constructed there. Ever ambitious, Herod perhaps exceeded his own hopes, when the Herodion (Latin, Herodium) was completed. The
Herodion was generally hidden from view by its artificial mound, tremendous in size but invisible until a visitor actually ascended the 200 steps of white marble leading to the summit. Round towers and high walls provided an architecturally impressive defense. Within, its beauty was centered in the sumptuous palaces inhabited quite often by Herod. There were apartments, baths, gardens, and a synagogue, as well as areas for friends and staff. Water had to be brought in from outside sources.
In 14 B. C.E. Marcus Agrippa visited Judaea and was entertained at the Herodion. Ten years later the fort served as Herod’s tomb. He was reportedly buried there, although his body was never discovered. The history of the site did not prevent the Jews from seizing it in 66 c. e. in the JEWISH REBELLION against Rome.
The Herodion, however, was no Masada. It fell to the legate Lucilius Bassus and his forces. During the time of the uprising of Simon bar cochba (132-135), the Hero-dion was reoccupied by the Jews but once more fell to the Romans.
Heruli One of the more powerful of the barbarian peoples. The Heruli or Heruls migrated originally from Scandinavia, perhaps Sweden, to follow their Gothic neighbors south. They branched off into two main hosts, one continuing on toward the Rhine, the other toward the BLACK SEA. Both arrived during the critical third century C. E. to join in the terrible invasions of the time.
The Rhine Heruli found a place along the southern stretch of the river where they came into immediate contact with the Romans, some time around 286 c. e. They soon entered into the service of Rome, supplying auxiliaries for the army in Germany (germania). Their separated cousins took a very different path. These Heruli reached the Black Sea in the middle of the third century C. E. and were allied to the major nation of the Goths. As they were familiar with ships and sailing, the Heruli were put in charge of the vessels extracted from the kingdom of the BOSPORUS and used to launch the invasions of Asia Minor, Thrace, and Greece in 267. The Heruli-guided fleets ravaged Bithynia, Byzantium, and much of the Black Sea coast. Gallienus, that same year, fought a bloody battle against the Goths at Naissus. The Heruli contingents under King Naulobotus surrendered, and Naulobotus received a client status from the emperor. But two years later the Heruli ships were again on the prowl.
At first the Heruli settled on the Black Sea, establishing for themselves a small territory. As the eastern hordes continued to arrive, they pushed westward, arriving finally in Pannonia. Relatively peaceful cohabitation followed with their Gothic neighbors, but by the middle of the fifth century, a new, potent race had taken control of a vast stretch of land from the Steppes to the Danube. The Huns became slave masters of the many smaller tribes across much of Europe, using them as fighting servants. Thus, in 451, when Attila set off to conquer Gaul, the
Heruli were in his host. The Hunnic empire, however, was destined to be brief. Attila died in 454. One year later a union of the Germans smashed the Huns in Pannonia at the battle of Nedao, breaking them so thoroughly that they never again troubled Europe in any organized fashion. Heruli warriors participated in the battle against the Huns and reaped the rewards of freedom. They took over a part of Pannonia and there grew in size and in strength. By the end of the Western Empire, in 476 C. E., the mighty Odoacer, the first barbarian king of Italy, may have deposed Romulus Augustulus with the help of the Heruli.
220, was absolutely enamored of him. The slave’s mother, also in servitude, was brought to Rome and given a place of honor. Elagabalus tried to raise Hierocles to the rank of Caesar and enjoyed being beaten by him for “adultery” Not surprisingly, the Romans, and the Praetorian Guard especially, greeted such behavior as revolting and demanded Hierocles’ dismissal with other, equally offensive officials. Elagabalus first agreed but then reinstated Hierocles, an act that hastened the emperor’s assassination by the Guard in 222. Hierocles was included in the ranks of those massacred after the death of the emperor.
Hesychius of Jerusalem (fl. early fifth century) Greek presbyter and exegete, author of numerous biblical commentaries, saint in the Greek Church
Little is known of Hesychius’s life, although he was probably a monk in his early years and, according to Theo-phanes the Confessor, a presbyter in Jerusalem in 412. His writings have been lost in part, but many were preserved in edited form and passed on under other names. Thus, the commentary on the Psalms attributed to St. Athanasius was probably the work of Hesychius. He apparently wrote commentaries on the entire Bible and was the author of a lost church history. Hesychius should not be confused with Bishop Hesychius of Jerusalem, a contemporary of St. Gregory the Great.
Hibernia Roman name for Ireland; also called Iverna or Juverna after one of the tribes upon its southern coast. Ireland never suffered subjugation by Rome, although it was known to the Romans, including Julius Caesar and Agricola. Tacitus, in Agricola, wrote of the country:
This island is less than Britain, but larger than those of our sea (the Mediterranean). Its soil, climate, and the manner and dispositions of its inhabitants, are little different from those in Britain. Its ports and harbors are better known, from the concourse of merchants for the purpose of commerce.
Agricola, the great general of Rome in Britain, was of the opinion that all of Ireland could have been conquered and held by one legion and some auxiliaries. But the inability of the legions in Britain to keep those islands safe from invasion precluded any new acquisitions of territory.
Hierocles (1) (d. 222. c. e.) Most decadent of the courtiers in the service of Emperor Elagabalus Hierocles earned the title of “husband” to the ruler. Hie-rocles was a slave from Caria, living in Rome and earning his living as a chariot driver. One day he took a spill just in front of the royal box. His golden hair and beauty attracted elagabalus immediately, and within days Hie-rocles was installed in the palace, amassing tremendous power over the court and the emperor. Elagabalus, by
Hierocles (2), Sossianus (fl. early fourth century c. e.) Governor of Bithynia and Egypt and the instigator of persecutions against the Christians
Hierocles tried to use an intellectual, philosophical, and imaginative response to Christianity. He preferred to compel Christians to recant rather than seek martyrdom by execution. Punishment for those who remained steadfast, however, could take a unique turn. He once confined a virgin to a brothel, an act for which he was beaten with a stick by the philosopher Aedesius. Hierocles also authored a treatise attacking the basis and logic of Christ and the Christian Creed. Eusebius responded with his Contra Hieroclem (Against Hierocles).
Hieronymian Martyrology Famous martyrology, known in Latin as the Hieronymianum, that was probably compiled in the fifth century in Italy. Its name was derived from a statement in the (apocryphal) correspondence that precedes the text that lists St. Jerome as the author of the work. The martyrology gives the date on the calendar year, followed by the name of a saint commemorated on each day, where the saint might be buried, entombed, or venerated, and any appropriate details related to the particular saint.
Hilarianus, Q. Iulius (fl. early fourth century c. e.) Chronologist
Hilarianus was the author of several works on chronology. The most notable of these works was De duratione mundi (On the duration of the world).
Hilary (1) (Hilary of Arles) (403-449) Archbishop of Arles who became a catalyst in the extending of papal authority over the church in Gaul
From a family in northern Gaul, Hilary became a monk in Lerins, succeeding St. Honoratus in 428-429 as archbishop of Arles. A supporter of reform, he presided over several councils, including those of Orange (441) and Vaison (442). In 444, he took the important step of deposing Bishop Chelidonius of Besanqon and irregularly replacing him with another. This act exceeded his authority as a metropolitan, and the entire measure was rescinded by Pope St. Leo I. The pontiff then deprived
Hilary of his metropolitan powers and obtained from Emperor Valentinian III recognition that Rome had supreme jurisdiction over the church in Gaul. Hilary submitted to the papal acts and was not removed from his see. He also authored a still extant biography of Honora-tus and other minor works.
Hilary (2) (Hilary of Poitiers) (c. 315-367) Bishop of Poitiers, theologian, leading opponent of Arianism Called the Athanasius of the West, Hilary was raised as a pagan, receiving an education centered around Neoplatonism. Converted to Christianity, he was elected bishop of Poitiers around 353. A short time later, he emerged as the main defender of orthodoxy in the West against the Arians. He was condemned for his stand by the Council of Biterrae in 356 and exiled to Phrygia for four years by Emperor Constantius III. In 359, he returned to prominence at the Council of Seleucia, where he spoke out eloquently on his own behalf. His oratorical skills were matched by his lasting contributions to the faith through his writings. Aside from his commentaries on the Old and New Testaments, particularly the Psalms, his chief works are De Trinitate (On the Trinity) and De Synodis (On the Synods).
Hilary (3) (Hilarius) (d. 468 C. E.) Saint, pope from 461 to 468
Probably a native of Sardinia, Hilary served for a time as archdeacon to Pope Leo I and was one of his legates with Julius, bishop of Puteoli, at the Latrocinium, the Robber Council of Ephesus in 449. There he protested the condemnation of Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople, and fought for the rights of the Roman see. He was forced to flee the city because of the violence that erupted there, barely escaping unharmed and attributing his safe journey to John the Evangelist, in whose burial site just outside Ephesus Hilary had hidden himself. Elected successor to Leo in November 461, he pursued the policies of his illustrious predecessor, devoting particular attention to Gaul (France) and Spain, where he resolved a number of ecclesiastical disputes and consolidated the authority of Rome. His synod at Rome in 465 is the oldest Roman synod for which extensive minutes have been preserved. In his dealings with the Eastern Church, Hilary circulated a decretal confirming the Councils of Nicaea (325), Ephesus (431), and Chalcedon (451).
Hills of Rome Tradition held that King Servius Tullius in the sixth century b. c.e. erected a fortification around the growing city of Rome, including within his walls the seven hills that became so much a part of Roman history and legend. These hills were the Palatine, Capitoline, Quirinal, Caelian, Aventine, Viminal, and Esquiline. Other hills surrounding the city included the Pincian, Janiculum, and Vatican.
Mons Palatinus The Palatine Hill was situated just south of the Quirinal Hill and the campus mar-TIUS. Throughout the Imperial Age it was the abode of the emperors. Augustus lived upon it in a small house, and his successors built increasingly lavish palaces. The domus tiberiana was eventually connected to the golden house of nero by the DOMUS TRANSITORIA, which stretched across the Velia to the valley beneath the Esquiline. Domitian constructed the Domus Domitiani and the DOMUS AUGUSTANA, with its own stadium. There were, as well, several arches surrounding the hill, including those of Titus and Constantine.
Mons Capitolinus The Capitoline was actually two hills with a depression between them, the Capitol and the Arx. Its name was derived from the magnificent temple adorning its summit, the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Here was the very heart of the Roman Cult of State and in time the religious center for the pagan world. The sibylline BOOKS were kept in the temple, and triumphs for generals were routed past it.
See also temple of jupiter capitolinus.
Collis Quirinalis One of the largest hills of Rome, the Quirinal is adjacent to the Campus Martius and just south of the Pincian Hills. It also formed a valley with the Viminal, the vallis Quirini. Aside from the gardens of sallust (Horti Sallusti), rightfully belonging to the Pincian Hills, the Quirinal contained two spectacular structures: the Baths of Constantine and the sumptuous Baths of Diocletian (see baths). Along the base of the southern end of the Quirinal was the area of the city called the Subura.
Mons Caelius The most southeasterly of the seven hills, the Caelian was connected to the inner workings of the city mainly by its northwestern tip. Here the jutting portions were used in part by Emperor Nero for his Golden House. Later, the Flavians created the Colosseum in that area, filling the valley between the Caelian, Palatine, and Esquiline hills. After the death of Claudius, Agrippina began the temple of divus Claudius. Nero tore down its walls, but Vespasian restored them. Because of its isolated position, relatively speaking, the Caelian Hill served as a useful site for several military and semi-political units. The Castra Nova Equilum Singularium housed the horse soldiers of the PRAETORIAN GUARD until 312 C. E. Two other camps were used as the headquarters of the FRUMENTARII (the Imperial Secret Service) and the PEREGRINI (foreign soldiers barracked in Rome).
Mons Aventinus The Aventine Hill was roughly parallel to the Caelian Hill in the southern sections of the city It was the gathering place of residences and displayed the considerable differences
Among the classes of Rome. Along the lower areas of the Aventine lived the plebeians and the foreigners. At the top were the villas of the wealthy
Collis Viminalis The Viminal was situated between the large Quirinal and Esquiline hills. It contained a hill and a wider expanse of territory to the east, the Campus Viminalis. On that site were two barracks, the castra of the cohortes urbanae (urban cohorts) and the castra praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard from 23 to 312 C. E. The Urban Cohorts were maintained with the Praetorians until the time of Emperor Aurelian. They were then moved to their own camp in the Campus Martius.
Mons Esquilinus A large hill like the Viminal, the Esquiline contained the Campus Esquilinius. The Esquiline was covered with a number of beautiful GARDENS—the Horti Pallantiani, Horti Maecenatis and Horti Lamiani—and several grand buildings were constructed upon it. The major portion of the Golden House rested along its southern slope, and, because of the popularity of the Esquiline, the Flavians chose to erect the Baths of Titus there, using the Golden House of Nero as a starting point. Later, Trajan erected his baths just northeast of Titus’s.
Collis Hortorum Pincius The Pincian Hills were not within the original boundaries of Rome, but the city nevertheless grew around them. originally, Collis Pincius, or Pincian Hills, was used, but this changed as private estates were founded upon its crests, villas with the lavish gardens of ASIATICUS and gardens of sallust. The family of the Domitii also owned a series of tombs there, where Nero was buried in 68 c. E.
Mons Janiculus A hill across the Tiber from Rome, which served originally as a fortress facing the Etruscans and protecting the Romans from invasion. Later, the hill became one of the building sites for those foreign deities that were not allowed to be honored in the pantheon of the Roman gods or the city The Syrian gods who had a following were worshiped there. Estates and villas also sprang up, as the view of Rome was impressive from the hill’s heights.
Mons Vaticanus See Vatican hills.
Hippo Also called Hippo Regius, a city on the Mediterranean coast of Numidia. Hippo was an old metropolis, in existence long before the Romans came to control AFRICA. It was situated between the towns of Bulla Regia and Cirta and was part of the line of communications running along the coast from Carthage. Hippo achieved notoriety twice in the fifth century C. E. St. Augustine, a doctor of the Christian Church, was consecrated a bishop in the city, remaining its chief prelate from 396 to his death on
August 28, 430. Ever after he was known as St. Augustine of Hippo. on the very day that Augustine died, the Vandals were besieging the city Under Geiseric, their king, the Vandals had entered Africa, sweeping across the frontier and laying siege to Hippo from May to June of 430. In the wars that followed the Vandal settlement in Africa, Hippo endured terrible suffering as did all of the Roman holdings in the region that fell into Geiseric’s hands.
Hippolytus (c. 170-236) Theologian, saint, writer;
Antipope in the early Christian Church
A presbyter in Rome, Hippolytus emerged a controversial and inflammatory figure in the Eternal City, largely because of his opposition to a number of popes, most notably Zepherinus (199-217) and Callistus (217-222), as well as their successors Urban (222-230) and Pon-tianus (230-235). Hippolytus particularly resisted the teachings of Callistus, possibly establishing himself as an antipope. His struggles with the popes ended only in 235 when, during the persecution of the church under Emperor Maximinus Thrax, Hippolytus and Pontianus were exiled to Sardinia. Hippolytus died there, possibly in 236 but apparently after reconciling himself with the Roman Christians, for his body was returned to Rome in 236 and given a proper burial. Hippolytus authored a number of works, including commentaries on Daniel and the Song of Songs, a treatise on the Apostolic tradition, and his greatest writing, Refutation of All Heresies, of which Books 4 to 10 are extant. A list of all his works was discovered on a statue of him in Rome in 1551; the statue was probably made during Hippolytus’s lifetime. One of the greatest theologians of the West in the third century, he was all but forgotten for many centuries, largely because of his troubles with the popes.
Hirtius, Aulus (d. 44 b. c.e.) Author, consul in 43 b. c.e. and an avid supporter and officer for Julius Caesar
Aulus Hirtius was one of the young, bright leaders who flocked to Caesar, serving in his legions during the gal lic WARS and in the civil war of the first triumvirate. As a result of Caesar’s goodwill, he became a praetor in 46 and was scheduled to be a consul in 43. After the assassination of Caesar in 44, Hirtius chose to follow Octavian (Augustus) and commanded an army with PANSA against Marc Antony. At Mutina he defeated Antony but was then killed in action. His death may have been caused by octavian, who feared his skills and wanted sole control of the troops during battle. The loss of Hirtius was severe, for reasons that went beyond his usefulness militarily. When Caesar died, leaving his De Bello Gallico (Gallic Wars) unfinished, Hirtius completed its eighth book (as written in the praefatio) and quite possibly authored Caesar’s De Bello Alexandrino (Alexandrine War). He had plans, it may be assumed, to write the accounts of Caesar’s other campaigns, de Bello Africa (African War) and de Bello Hispaniensi (Spanish War), but died before he had the opportunity. The authorship of these two histories remains an important question. While Suetonius states that Hirtius completed De Bello Gallico, the African and Spanish accounts are far too poor in style and organization, as well as in grammar, to be his efforts.
Hispania Roman province of Spain, one of the most successful in imperial provincial history In Hispania, Rome founded three of its most profitable provinces: Baetica, Lusitania and Tarraconensis. While these lands were the first in the West to be acquired by the Republic, they proved very difficult to subdue and took many years to Romanize.
The first inhabitants were known as the Iberi and lived throughout modern Spain and just over the Pyrenees. In time, a large Celtic migration brought the Celtiberi into the region, who took over the central zones east of the Guadarrama Mountains and south of the Ebro River. The Celtiberi and the Iberians often united, but in the north, from the Pyrenees to the Minius River, there were Iberians who retained their cultural independence. These tribes evolved into the Astures and the fierce cantabri.
For many centuries Spain had the reputation of being rich in minerals, jewels, and, most notably, in gold. Phoenician traders arrived and, around 500 B. C.E., the Greeks established colonies on the eastern coast, naming the region Iberia; west of Gibraltar (the Pillars of Hercules), they named it Tartessus. The colonies brought in new populations, which resulted in a mixture of native peoples. Such was the situation in 238 B. C.E., when the Carthaginians invaded the region and Spain became a battleground in the bitter Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage. The Romans won mastery of the Mediterranean territory, and in the second Punic War (218-201 B. C.E.), the Carthaginians were driven out of Spain entirely, forced to surrender their cities of Gades and Carthago Nova.
Rome thus inherited the problems of the region. Spain was totally primitive and required centuries of incessant warfare for pacification. The two most independent tribes were the Lusitanians and the Cantabri. Living in the southwestern sections, the Lusitanians refused to accept Roman domination and demanded the presence of some of Rome’s most gifted military commanders: brutus albinus, Scipio Aemilianus and, finally, Julius caesar, who vanquished the tribe in 60 b. c.e. The Cantabri to the north, and to a lesser extent the Astures, required frequent campaigns in the first century b. c.e., all conducted by the local governors in order to maintain the peace. Six different generals launched wars against them between 44 and 27 b. c.e., with only temporary results. AUGUSTUS himself arrived in 27, thereby opening up all of Hispania for provincialization. Although victory was gained and many Cantabri enslaved, the resulting tranquility proved illusory. The slaves escaped, returned home, and started another insurrection. Marcus agrippa, in 19 b. c.e., burned their mountain cities, forcing them to live on the plains. This policy broke the will of the tribespeople and gave birth to the new era of Romanization.
After its initial conquests, Rome divided Spain into two relatively equal provinces, Hispania Citerior and His-pania Ulterior, or Nearer and Farther Spain, originally under the command of two proconsuls. This arrangement neglected to take into account the considerable differences in geography, culture, and economic potential of the various Spanish regions.
As part of the Roman Empire, Hispania was seen as a province of potential by the first emperor, who wanted it run efficiently, with an eye toward bringing out its vast wealth and Romanizing it with cities and colonies. He thus ordered the creation of three provinces, two of imperial status and one of senatorial rank. Lusitania and Tar-raconensis he kept for himself, knowing that wars were inevitable there, while in the south, Baetica was ceded to the Senate, largely because of the territory’s reputation for harmony Its boundaries were formed by the Anas and the Baetis rivers, the latter giving the province its name.
A governor, normally a proconsul in rank, administered Baetica’s affairs from his office at Corduba, although Hispalis is also named as a possible seat of government. Baetica contained the old Carthaginian colony of Gades, a reminder of the connections to Africa, the continent lying just to the south. The line of communications of the empire ran through Baetica to Mauretania, specifically to Tingitana. In the second century C. E. the Moors from the Rif made incursions into Baetica, ravaging coastal towns and sailing up the Baetis to Italica.
Augustus retained Lusitania as an imperial province because of the prolonged unrest caused by the natives. The province occupied the area of modern Portugal, with its borders resting along the Douro and Anas rivers. Its capital was at Merida (Emerita), situated on the Anas. The location was chosen to allow the governor to rely upon Baetica in the event of a major rebellion among the local tribes.
Tarraconensis was the most important of the three provinces in Spain, for it controlled not only the Pyrenees leading to Gallia Aquitania (gallia) but also watched over the tribes of the Cantabri and the Astures. These considerations influenced the size of the province, stretching its borders from the northwest coast all the way down to the Baetis River, including all of the mountain tribes and the Celtiberi cantons. To assist in administering the province, the governor was initially provided with three legions (eventually reduced to one). The capital of Tarraco on the coast served as the strategic center for Spain and the major port on the Mediterranean for the three provinces.
From the start Spain was prosperous, relying upon several staple products for its economic health. Foremost of its exports were minerals; it supplied the empire with most of its gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, and tin. pliny THE ELDER wrote of the production capacities of Galicia, Lusitania, and Asturia, where there were many mines. Lead flowed in from Baetica, silver from Carthago Nova, tin from Lusitania, and copper from Lusitania and Marianus. As a result, Hispania emerged as the mineral capital of the empire, and from the earliest days of imperial rule the focus of administration was on exhausting the supply and developing the surrounding countryside to aid in distribution and transportation. The many well designed and intricate road systems were built originally to combat rebellion and were then used to move the precious minerals from the provincial capitals of Tarraco, Corduba, and Merida.
The other major export was agriculture. Much of Spain was fertile, with rivers and valleys offering an environment for produce in such abundance that the Spanish could feed themselves and then supply italy and Rome. The types of food represented the diversity of the local climates. Spain sent Rome wheat, olive oil, wine, fruits, and vegetables. Large cattle herds provided beef, and the coasts offered another type of harvest, fish.
Development of so many industries, including manufacture of goods, was made easier by the stability that Hispania enjoyed for centuries under the empire. Surrounded on three sides by water and the pyrenees guarding the fourth, few frontier crises ever took place, except for the arrival of the MOORS. Tarraconensis originally had three legions, but Vespasian found little use for such a waste of good troops and moved two out of the province, a decision reflecting the extent of pacification and the degree of Romanization that had been accomplished. peace reigned until the demise of the empire in the West in the fifth century C. E.
Augustus had initiated the influx of Roman and italian culture. Twenty-one colonies were founded in His-pania, ultimately superceding the ones established by the phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians. Many of these were added to the long list of cities given a part in the Latin franchise. Because of these holdings, and because of the long years of Roman presence, Spain was the most Romanized group of provinces in the world, more so than even gallia narbonensis. The thorough intertwining of italian and Celtiberian and iberian ways of life resulted in the same separation of classes and culture seen in other lands, especially in Britain. The cities and larger communities were very Roman, while the greater mass of miners, peasants, and lower-class workers were touched only in language, currency, and military service.
Hispania provided the Roman legions with soldiers of remarkable stamina, bred in the mountains and fields. Two functions of Spanish recruiting were to supply the legions and auxiliaries in Tarraconensis and to provide troops for other regions. By the middle of the second century C. E., however, such recruitment was difficult because of urban development. Secondly, the evolution of these centers, out of the traditional Celtic cantons, made the iberians and Celtiberians reluctant to march off to war in the service of Rome.
The upper classes and the Romanized families, meanwhile, produced brilliant intellectuals and writers who impressed the empire. The teacher of ovid, Marcus Porcius Latro, seneca the elder, seneca the younger, Pomponius mela, Lucius columella—all came from Baetica. There were many others, the most famous of whom was Quintilian, the first-century c. e. rhetorician and historian. in politics, citizens from Hispania assumed positions of greater power, attaining the consulship under CORNELIUS BALBUS and ultimately the throne. The emperors HADRIAN and TRAJAN were from Hispania.
Suggested Readings: Curchin, L. A. Roman Spain. Conquest and Assimilation. London: Routledge, 1991; De Alarcao, J. Roman Portugal: Introduction and Gazeteer. Warminster, U. K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988; Keay, S. J. Roman Spain. London: British Museum Publications, 1988.
Hispo, Romanus See delatores.
Historia Augusta See scriptores historiae augustae.
Honoria Augusta (Justa Grata Honoria) (417/418-after 451 c. E.) Sister of Emperor Valentinian III and daughter of Constantius III and the formidable Galla Placidia In 425 Honoria received the title of Augusta, shortly after her brother’s elevation to the throne. Honoria entered into an affair with one of the stewards, Eugenius, in 449, a liaison that was discovered and terminated by her lover’s execution. Betrothal followed to an utterly nonambitious senator, Flavius Herculanus. Desperate, Hono-ria looked for a barbarian champion whom she could recruit, choosing the most dangerous of them all, attila the Hun. The “Scourge of God” received her ring and her plea. Finding it convenient to support her, Attila interpreted the ring as a proposal of marriage. in the spring of 451, therefore, he set out with his army, invading Gaul. When the Huns were repulsed at the Catalaunian Plain in the summer of 451, Attila turned on Italy and arrived there in the following year, demanding the hand of Hono-ria. Valentinian refused to surrender his sister, and only the famed intervention of Pope Leo, and perhaps the presence of a deadly plague, prevented the Huns from repeating on Rome the total destruction they had wreaked on Aquileia. The ultimate fate of Honoria remains a mystery.
Honorius, Flavius (383-423 c. e.) Emperor in the West from 395 to 423
The son of Theodosius i and Aelia Flavia Flaccilla, Hono-rius reigned at a time marked by the rapid deterioration of the Western Empire. He was given the title of Augustus at Constantinople in 393; two years later, Theodosius died, leaving the empire to be divided between Honorius in the West and Arcadius in the East. From the start of his rule, Honorius was dominated by his powerful magister militum, stilicho, whose daughter maria married the emperor in 395. Unfortunately, Stilicho was little concerned with the welfare of the West, but consumed instead with an overwhelming desire to rule both empires. He interfered with the internal court policies of Constantinople, effected assassinations and plotted to snatch up Illyricum, a territory taken by Theodosius and possessed at the time by Arcadius.
These aspirations, coupled with a regrettable familiarity with the Gothic hosts of Alaric, caused a stagnation of frontier defenses. On the last day of 406, the Ala-manni, Alans, Burgundians, Vandals, and their allies poured over the Rhine, burning Gaul and Spain. The Roman holdings in these lands would never be the same. Stilicho failed to produce effective countermeasures, and soon Alaric demanded tribute from Honorius, as usurpers rose up in the provinces, most notably Constantine iii. Honorius’s only solution was to murder his leading general on August 22, 408. The death of Stilicho led to further Visigothic inroads, culminating in 410 with Alaric’s capture of Rome. This catastrophe was the lowest point of Honorius’s impotent reign, for shortly thereafter Alaric died, and the emperor discovered a new and reliable officer, CONSTANTIUS III. Constantius defeated Alaric’s successor, Athaulf; after negotiations, the hostage Galla Placidia (Honorius’s half-sister) was surrendered in return for the Visigoths’ right to settle in southern Gaul, near Tolosa (Toulouse), in 418. The Visigoths thus enjoyed their own state within imperial boundaries.
Constantius died in 421, depriving the battered army of a commander, and Galla Placidia, unable to bear the peculiar advances of Honorius, left Italy for Constantinople in 423. She took the young Valentinian, Honorius’s successor, with her. Honorius was now alone and childless, for Maria had given him no heirs. A second marriage to Stilicho’s second daughter, Thermantia, also proved barren. Honorius died, a failure in many respects, on August 15, 423. In 402, however, he moved the imperial center at Mediolanum (Milan) to the marshy, easily defended city of ravenna, which for more than a century would be the home of the emperors and their Gothic successors.
Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (65-8 b. c.e.) One of the greatest poets in Roman history Born on December 8 at Venusia, Horace was the son of a freedman tax collector or auctioneer. He was educated in Rome, where he studied under Orbilius, who enjoyed flogging his pupils. Eventually Horace traveled to Athens (c. 45 B. C.E.), where he continued his studies. In 44, he joined the army of Marcus Brutus, achieving the rank of TRIBUNE. He fought at the battle of philippi in 42, fleeing with the rest of the Republican army after its defeat. He lost his family estates and forfeited all political ambitions, but was pardoned and took a position as a clerk in the offices of the quaestor (treasury) and wrote poetry.
In 39 B. C.E., he was introduced by Varius and Virgil to the literary patron Gaius maecenas. A friendship developed quickly between them, and Maecenas became Horace’s benefactor, giving him funds and the means to journey with him, especially to Brundisium in 37. Maecenas’s greatest gift to Horace was a villa in the Sabine hills, near Tivoli (Tibur). Horace mentions his villa in his works and spent much of his time there, often in the company of his patron. Through his association with Maecenas and because of his writing, Horace knew the most influential and important figures of the era. AUGUSTUS himself honored Horace with his favor and with the offer of a post as secretary. His prestige continued after Maecenas’s death in 8 b. c.e., his patron requesting in his will that the emperor be “as mindful of Horace as of himself.” Horace was buried next to Maecenas when he died himself later that year.
Horace described himself as short and fat, with a stomach so large that even the emperor remarked upon it. He was reportedly a cheery individual who enjoyed the company of friends, though he was the subject of critical attack and literary feuding as well. He was inclined to live frugally.
The works of Horace are numerous, displaying a knowledge of philosophy (epicureanism), a vast vocabulary and a reliance upon common sense. His efforts can be divided into several genres.
Epodes Written around 31-30 b. c.e., these poems, based upon Archilochus, are among the earliest political verse in Rome. They could be bitter and harsh, critical even of Maecenas (No. 3), whom Horace chides for the use of garlic.
Satires Horace chose not to use moral outrage but humor as the basis of his two books of satires, published in 30 b. c.e. The 18 poems are filled with his opinion, comedic touches, and observations on such subjects as food, sex, friends, and success. Through them all he wove genuine artistic flair and style, achieving his intent to “laughing tell the truth.”
Odes The Carmina, or Odes, were published together for the first time in 23 b. c.e. They followed closely the style of the Alexandrine poets and other Greek lyric forms, although Horace justly laid claim to the distinction of being the first Roman poet to use such refined Hellenic techniques in Latin. These 103 poems were written during a period of maturity and thus represent Horace at the peak of his form, revealing vast learning in mythology, religion, and the verse of other periods.
In 17 B. C.E., his long ode, the Carmen Saecu-lare, was published. Commissioned by Augustus for the ludi Saeculares (games), Horace used the style to honor not only the gods but his imperial patron as well, recounting his noble deeds. The Carmen Saeculare was followed by other poems, forming a fourth book of odes.
Epistles The Epistles of Horace were published in two books, the first in 20 b. c.e. and the second in 17 or later. He wrote to a vast number of people, including Augustus, Maecenas, and lollius. Although less significant and (some would argue) inferior to the satires, Horace injected his letters with his own philosophy and opinions on social problems, etiquette, and questions of morality. His method was informal, convivial, and filled with flashes of vision.
Ars Poetica Although probably composed as part of the Epistles, the Ars Poetica (Art of Poetry) was separated from the original collection. It was a letter, written to two members of the Piso family. The Ars Poetica presented a criticism of the art and stood as Horace’s longest poem. Its dating is hard to determine, appearing first in the time of Quintilian; he may have finished it around 18 B. C.E. Another name for the Ars Poetica was Epis-tula ad Pisones.
Hormazd III (d. 459 c. e.) King of Persia for two years, 457-459
Hormazd succeeded Yazdagird II and was followed by Peroz, the mighty king who ruled from 459 to 484.
See also sassanid dynasty.
Hormisdas (fl. mid-fourth century c. e.) Sassanid prince and the son of the Persian King Hormazd II; brother of Sha-pur II, who succeeded Hormazd in 309 Hormisdas fled Persia in 324 to offer himself to the Roman Empire. He was welcomed by Constantine or Licinius Licinianus. Constantius II made him a cavalry commander and companion on a trip to Rome in 357. Julian the Apostate then gave him another post in his army, which was headed for the East in 362. He took him along on his Persian expedition of 363, where the Roman cavalry once again came under Hormisdas’s control. The prince took insults from his countrymen in this campaign but did manage to convince a Persian garrison to surrender. Julian may have planned to install Hormisdas on the Persian throne after conquering the country. The imperial army, however, failed to take Ctesiphon, and Julian died in battle a short time later, ending any ambitions. Back in Constantinople, Hormisdas lived in a palace. His son, also named Hormisdas, entered into the service of the Roman Empire.
The principal sources for details of Horace’s life are his own works and a biography by suetonius.
See also poetry.
Hormazd Ardashir (d. c. 272 c. e.) King of Persia, also called Hormazd I; son of the great Shapur I Throughout much of shapur’s reign, Hormazd served as governor of the territory of Khorasan, bearing the title of Great King of Kings of the Kushans. When Shapur died in 272, Hormazd succeeded him but died after a brief time on the throne. He probably served with his father in the war against Rome and witnessed the capture and humiliation of Valerian in 259-260.
See also sassanid dynasty.
Hormazd II (d. 309 c. e.) King of Persia and ruler of the Sassanids from 302 to 309
Sometimes called Hormizd II, Hormazd succeeded his father Narses to the throne in the wake of a Persian defeat. Narses had lost the war with Rome in 296-298 and had signed an unsatisfactory treaty, ceding control of Armenia to Rome. Hormazd could do little to reinstate the glory of the Persian army and appears to have contented himself with internal affairs. His reign was marked, however, by domestic unrest, and he may have died prematurely. An infant son, shapur II, followed him in 309.
Hosius (c. 257-357 c. e.) Also called Ossius; bishop of Cordova
A prelate who played a major role in the Christianization of the Roman Empire and in the early Arian controversy, Hosius was elected a bishop in 296. He suffered in the persecutions of Maximian but survived to take part in the Council of Elvira in 306. From 313, Emperor Constantine relied upon him as an adviser, requesting a report on the Arian controversy. Traveling to Alexandria, Hosius returned with conclusions so certain that the emperor convened the Council of Nicaea. Hosius may have served as the president of the council and may have been the one to introduce the theological term homoousios (see arianism). The next years were spent in ardent opposition to the growing Arian movement. He took part in the Council of sardica in 343 and was exiled to sirmium in 355 for supporting st. Athanasius. In a letter from exile, written to Constantius II, he called for a delineation between church and state, a very unique view for the time. In 357, at a synod, he finally agreed to sign a pro-Arian declaration, regretting and repudiating his signature upon his death bed at the age of 100.
Hostilian (Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus) (d. c. 251 C. E.) Younger son of Decius and Herennia Etruscilla, and the brother of Herennius Etruscus In 251, Herennius was appointed Augustus, and Hostilian received the title of Caesar. While his brother and father
Were away on campaign against the Goths, Hostilian remained in Rome with Herennia. In the summer of 251, word came that decius and his son had been massacred at Abrittus by Kniva and the Goths. trebonianus gallus became emperor but placated the Romans by leaving Herennia as Augusta and by appointing Hostilian as his coruler. The young emperor died a short time later of the plague.
Hostilianus (fl. first century c. e.) Cynic philosopher of Rome
Hostilianus was an associate of the more famous Demetrius the Cynic. Both were exiled from the capital as part of the campaign to remove philosophers from Rome in 71-75 C. E.
Huneric (d. 484 c. e.) King of the Vandals from 477 to 484, the son of King Geiseric
Huneric joined his father in his conquest of Africa in 429, at the invitation of the MAGISTER MILITUM boniface. After six years of bloodshed, a treaty was signed with Valen-tinian III in 435. As part of the pact, Huneric was sent to Rome to live there as a hostage, but he returned home before 439, as his father began to exert his influence over all of Africa. Back with geiseric, Huneric was married to the daughter of the Gothic ruler, Theoderic, to form an alliance between the Visigoths and the vandals. By 449, however, Geiseric wished to make a different union, and a reason was found to invalidate the marriage contract. Huneric allowed his wife to be charged with attempting to poison Geiseric. Her nose and ears were cut off, and she was sent back to a horrified Theoderic. This mutilation and dismissal made possible the wedding between Huneric and Eudocia, the daughter of Licinia eudoxia, in 455. Eudoxia and her two daughters, Eudocia and Placidia, had been taken from the sacked city of Rome by sea to carthage and had been useful in the bargaining between Geiseric and Emperor Leo. When an agreement was reached in 461, allowing captives to be released, Huneric kept Eudocia as his wife. He succeeded Geiseric in 477 as the king of the Vandals.
Huns The most famous and most feared of all of the barbarian hordes to ravage the Roman Empire. Known originally as the Hsiung-nu, the Huns developed as a disjointed confederation in central Asia. in the third century B. C.E. they were already nomadic and on the move into china. The Great Wall was erected to hold them at bay, and so the Huns turned west. culturally, the Huns were united by a sense of perpetual danger and by an instinct for self-preservation, uniting against a common foe. They relied upon leaders who ensured that no enemy ever matched them in ferocity or in martial skills. The cheeks of infant males were slashed to form scars, preventing long beards. Their diet consisted of milk products and meats when available, made tender by being placed under the saddle during riding. Physically they were very stout, with thick legs and muscular frames. Though invariably outnumbered, their proficiency with weapons made one Hun a match for many of his foes. opposition was reduced by outright cruelty toward subject populations. While traveling to Europe the Huns annihilated everything in their path, destroying the slavs on the steppes and pillaging their way across the ukraine.
In the middle of the fourth century c. e. the first screaming horsemen descended upon the ALANS, OSTROGOTHS, and HERULI. Within years the Huns dominated the ways between the Black Sea and Dacia, burning everything in their wake. For whatever reason, perhaps a struggle between rival chieftains, a period of quiet followed.
By the middle of the fifth century, however, the Huns once more stood ready to make war. Their first ambitious chief was uldin, who was defeated by an army of Theodosius, somewhere in Thrace. Uldin had failed to hold together the various elements of his nation. The Hunnic population was then split into three camps, the two most powerful being led by Rugila and Mandiuch. Rugila received tribute from Theodosius and may have supported him against the Goths, for more land in Pannonia. When he died shortly after 433, his brother Mandiuch took over the majority of the clans and was succeeded by his own sons, Bleda and attila. Attila proved the most capable ruler that the Huns would ever know. He pushed to the East and seized the Caucasus, solidifying his own position before murdering Bleda in 444. Sitting alone on the throne, Attila embarked on a strong campaign of war. In 447 he invaded the Danube frontier, threatening Constantinople. Marcianopolis fell, and more tributes of money and land resulted in a treaty by which he agreed to respect the Danube.
In 451, Attila and the Huns set out for the Rhine. They pierced Germany and poured into Gaul. Total victory seemed within his grasp when the Huns suffered a reverse at the battle of the catalaunian plain in the summer of 451. After this defeat, Attila turned on Italy AQUILEIA was besieged and utterly ruined. The Hunnic horsemen next moved on Rome. Pope Leo, aided by a plague and by an Italian famine, forced a Hunnic retreat. Attila was dead within the year.
Attila’s empire did not long survive him. His sons proved incapable of holding together the fabric of the united clans, and in 454, at the nedao River in Pannonia, the long-enslaved Goths, Alans, Heruli, and their allies rose up. The Hun holdings were lost, and their clans were driven in every direction. For nearly a century the Huns had been the strongest barbarian nation and the greatest rival of the Roman Empire in the north. Their realm stretched at one point from the Ukraine to the Rhine. By holding the Goths and many others in check, they provided the cities of the Eastern and Western Empires time to prepare for the inevitable onslaughts, and compelled many tribes to join with the Romans against a common foe. Ammianus Marcellinus wrote of them in some detail.
Hydatius (c. 400-470 c. e.) Christian chronicler in Spain in the fifth century
Hydatius became bishop of Aquae Flaviae in 427. His great work, the Chronicle, was a continuation of Jerome, extending the history to his own time, up to the year 469. It is one of the few extant and contemporary examinations of the invasions of Spain in that century
Hyginus, Gaius Julius (c. 64 b. c.e.-17 c. e.) Freedman, scholar, and librarian of the Augustan Age (27 B. C.E.-14 C. E.)
Hyginus may have come from Spain to enter the service of Augustus, under whose patronage he came to be the head of the library on the Palatine Hill. As a writer, Hyginus was prolific, following varro in style. He was a friend of OVID and authored an examination of famous figures in Roman history, commentaries on cinna and virgil, and compiled extensive surveys on agriculture and bees. The writings of two other men under the name Hyginus, one on legal boundaries, are sometimes ascribed to him.
Hypatia (c. 375-415 c. e.) Neoplatonic philosopher of Alexandria
World History
