to the information provided by a Ramessid king-list written on a papyrus in the Museo Egizio in Turin, the so-called Turin Canon, there are remarkably few weak links in the order and dating of Old Kingdom rulers. Among the chronologically significant kings, only the reigns of Menkaura (2532-2503 bc, but perhaps less) and Neferirkara (2475-2455 BC, but this is almost certainly too long) present more serious difficulties. We have no safe dates based on contemporary astronomical observation, and calculations made for other periods may change the relative position of the Old Kingdom in the chronological scheme of ancient Egyptian history. The degree of reliability with which we credit ancient sources and our understanding of the Egyptian dating system are also important. On the whole, however, it seems that 2686 bc as the beginning of the reign of Nebka (the first ruler in Manetho’s 3rd Dynasty, although his position in the dynasty has recently been challenged) is secure within a margin of error of about twenty-five years.
The end of the period, about five and a half centuries later, is more obscure, but the ancient Egyptians and modern historians are in broad agreement on its characteristics. For the Egyptians, the transfer of the royal residence away from Memphis was represented by a sharp division in their king-lists. As this approximately coincided with profound political, economic, and cultural changes in Egyptian society, it is convenient to follow their example. All the same, the lack of accurate chronological indicators is daunting, and the degree of uncertainty is such that much of the often lively polemic is, in the present state of our knowledge, purely academic.
Although the division of Egyptian kings into dynasties (royal ruling houses), introduced by the Ptolemaic historian Manetho in the third century bc is generally followed, its weaknesses have rarely been exposed more convincingly than in the case of the Old Kingdom. We can establish contemporary reasons for nearly all dynastic breaks, but more often than not it would be difficult to defend them as sound historical criteria or discontinuity in the line of kings. Nevertheless, in the absence of a radical alternative, Manetho’s system provides a convenient chronological scheme that avoids the more fluid absolute dates (in years bc).
During the Old Kingdom Egypt experienced a long and uninterrupted period of economic prosperity and political stability, in conTinuation of the Early Dynastic Period. It rapidly grew into a centrally organized state ruled by a king believed to be endowed with qualified supernatural powers. It was administered by a literate elite selected at least partly on merit. Egypt enjoyed almost complete self-sufficency and safety within its natural borders; no external rivals threatened its dominance of the north-eastern corner of Africa and the immediately adjacent areas of Western Asia. Advances in religious ideas were reflected in breathtaking achievements in arts and architecture.
World History
