The manipulation of water has a long history in Southeast Asia. This reflects the monsoon climate, with its sharp contrast between the wet and the dry seasons. In the former, there is a superabundance of water in the lowlands, and flooding is widespread. During the latter, months can go by without any rainfall. This pattern encouraged communities, as they grew in size and population numbers, to control water flows, usually by building up earthen dikes to form reservoirs. These banks ring many large Iron Age sites, and where dated, fall within 1 to 400 C. E. During the life of the states of funan and CHENLA, water was retained in rectangular reservoirs known as BARAYS. None was large enough to have any influence on rice production, but they could have satisfied domestic needs, as well as fulfilled a symbolic role as the oceans that surround the mythical home of the Hindu gods. With the foundation of the kingdom of angkor in about 800 C. E., the size of the barays dramatically increased, culminating in the massive western baray of SURYAVARMAN I (r. c. 1002-1049 C. E.) at Angkor.
Were Reservoirs Used for Irrigation?
There are two opposing schools of thought on whether these reservoirs were constructed to irrigate rice fields. Bernard-Philippe Groslier and Jacques Dumarqay have described Angkor as a hydraulic city in which the reservoirs were the source of irrigation water. They believe that the very choice for the location of the successive cities of Angkor was determined by the availability of water that flowed south from the kulen hills via the Puok, Siem Reap, and Roluos Rivers. The maintenance of a city with a population of a million or more, they claim, could have continued only with irrigation agriculture, and therefore its decline was at least in part due to the irrigation sys-tern’s collapse. The opposing school, which includes Philip Stott, W J. van Liere, and Robert Acker, argues against irrigation on technical and geographic grounds.
Despite their size and huge capacity, could the barays have held sufficient water to have a serious impact on rice production? And if so, how was the water reticulated, for there is no surviving evidence for irrigation canals or other distributaries, despite the abundant evidence that the engineers of Angkor were adept at controlling water flows? Moreover, is there actually sufficient land below the reservoirs for significant production, and are there any insuperable impediments to the provision of an overall irrigation system? Groslier has suggested that, in the absence of distribution canals, a channel was excavated outside and parallel with the southern dikes, which filled with water percolating through the bank of the reservoir. Van Liere has shown that this is technically impossible.
Acker has given detailed consideration to the area that could have been irrigated, the water requirement, likely yields, and the location of the barays relative to one another and the land below them. His calculations were based on Groslier’s estimate of a population at Angkor in the vicinity of 1,900,000 people, of whom 600,000 were supported by 86,000 hectares (215,000 acres) of irrigated rice fields. In the dry season, a hectare would require 15,000 cubic meters (525,000 cu. ft.) of water. Assuming all the major barays at Angkor were full to a depth of three meters (9.9 ft.), they could have supplied 7,000 hectares (17,500 acres). If they yielded 1.46 tons of rice per hectare and annual consumption was 220 kilograms (484 lbs.) of rice per capita, the dry season yield would have maintained about 44,500 people, about 2.5 percent of the estimated population. This calculation is based only on the amount of water available when the barays were three meters deep. It does not take into account the possibility that the barays were constantly replenished with water from the Siem Reap River throughout the dry season. There is also the possibility that the reservoirs were used to supplement water supplies to the fields when there was insufficient rainfall during the wet season. If so, then a further 9,000 metric tons (9,900 tons) over and above anticipated wet-season production could have been obtained, making the total irrigated yield 19,200 tons, sufficient to feed nearly 100,000 people.
These figures assume that all the barays were being employed simultaneously, a situation possible only during the reign of jayavarman vii (r. 1181-1219 c. e.) and his successors. On the other hand, Acker has shown that the reservoirs mask one another from potentially irrigable rice fields. Again, the Yashodharatataka (eastern baray) could not have irrigated all the potential land below it, because the incised siem Reap River would have made that system impossible.
No inscriptions that mention the reservoirs link them with irrigation. A description of an estate at hari-HARALAYA cites the Indratataka as a boundary marker but does not mention water. Another inscription describes YASHOVARMAN I (r. 889-910 c. e.) as the husband of the Earth, who filled it with virtue, pleasure, and fecundity, but the ensuing mention of his baray is too damaged to allow its full meaning to be obtained. His foundation inscriptions compare Yashodharatataka to the Moon, the source of life-sustaining ambrosia. rajendravarman (r. 944-68 c. e.), it is said, filled the water with his good works and made it a mirror to reflect his temple in the middle. The jayatataka of jayavarman vii contained a temple designed to wash away the sins of those who bathed in its pools.
ZHOU DAGUAN, who visited Angkor in 1296-97, reported that three or four crops a year could be obtained. This does not necessarily mean that irrigation was in place, because there are many ways of producing crops without it. The evidence available does not sustain the suggestion that irrigation was vital to the survival of Angkor. Even today, irrigation is not widely practiced in regions where wet-season rains are sufficient for rice cultivation. This removes the failure of the irrigation system as an explanation for the abandonment of Angkor and enhances the likelihood that the reservoirs were essentially symbolic.
MYANMAR (BURMA)
While the region of Angkor enjoyed sufficient annual rainfall for the cultivation of rice, the pyu civilization (200 B. C.E.-900 c. e.) cities of Myanmar (Burma) are located in the dry zone of the interior, where the rain shadow means that at the sites of halin and beikthano precipitation falls to between 750 and 880 millimeters (35.2 in.) per annum. This is insufficient alone for the cultivation of rice. At the same time, the Irrawaddy River that links the pyu cities is too prone to flooding to encourage cultivation along its floodplain. The pyu cities of Beikthano, Halin, and SRi ksetra share a preference for the tributary river valleys, where it was possible to divert water into canals and thence to large reservoirs. At Beik-thano, for example, the main canal branches at an eastern city gate to feed the moat and also to fill the western reservoir in the city. There are many large reservoirs at Halin, all fed by a major canal system. in her study of aerial photographs of these cities, Janice Stargardt has recognized possible early field systems that could have received irrigation water from such reservoirs and has concluded that the urban population relied on rice grown in irrigated fields for survival.
Further reading: Bagley, R. W Ancient Sichuan. Seattle and Princeton: Seattle Art Museum, 2001; De Silva, K. M. A History of Sri Lanka. London: Hurst, 1981; Hsu, Cho-yun. Han Agriculture: The Formation of Early Chinese Agrarian Economy. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980.
Ishanapura Known today as Sambor Prei Kuk, Ishana-pura was a major royal center in cambodia and capital of King ISHANAVARMAN OF CHENLA (r. c. 615-628 c. e.) during the early seventh century c. e. A 13th-century Chinese compilation incorporates a description of an early seventh-century ruler, probably King ishanavarman. it describes how the king gave an audience every three days in a hall containing a wooden throne embellished with columns of inlaid wood and fine fabrics. He wore a gold crown and golden ear pendants. courtiers and officials touched the ground three times with their head below the steps leading up to the throne. At the end of the audience, members of the court prostrated themselves. ishanapura has yielded one of the outstanding examples of early Khmer art in the form of a statue of Durga 1.65 meters (5.4 ft.) in height, renowned for the natural representation of this goddess.
Ishanapura is located in the valley of the Sen River above the great lake. It includes a series of three rectangular enclosures demarcated by decorated brick walls within which lie brick temple sanctuaries and ponds. it was recorded in detail by Henri Parmentier, but recent fieldwork has added to the number of temple foundations. The layout of the central area reveals the presence of three walled precincts, each dominated by a large sanctuary. These were designated the central, southern, and northern groups. The southern group includes one principal and five lesser sanctuaries, set within an inner wall that was in turn enclosed by an outer enceinte measuring 300 by 270 meters (990 by 891 ft.). A further row of six sanctuaries lies within this second enclosure, which gives access to a causeway. The four inscriptions that have been recovered reveal that this was a foundation of King Ishanavarman. The northern group is also surrounded by a double wall with a central shrine and numerous subsidiary sanctuaries. Outside the eastern gate on the outer wall, an avenue leads to a large reservoir demarcated by earthen banks.
No INSCRIPTIONS have been found with the central group. As do the other two, it has a central sanctuary that was raised on a platform reached by a flight of steps. carved lions guard access to the immediate surrounds of the temple terrace, the sanctuary of which measures 14 by 14 meters (42 by 42 ft.), with walls 2.8 meters (9.2 ft.) thick. An aerial reconnaissance of Ishanapura has revealed that the sanctuaries are set within a doublewalled enclosure measuring two by two kilometers. The
BARAY, or reservoir, was found outside the city walls. W J. van Liere has considered the hydraulic system of Ishana-pura, suggesting that it was probably designed more for supplying the moats, religious foundations, and urban populace than for irrigating rice fields.
Ishanavarman of Chenla (r. c. 615-637 c. e.) Ishanavarman (protege of Siva) was a son of King Mahendra-varman and an important figure in the history of state formation in Cambodia. The available inscriptions reveal that he established central control over strategic areas.
His capital at ishanapura has been identified at Sambor Prei Kuk, and a contemporary eyewitness account indicates a rich royal center with a palace, armed retainers, and the presence of an aristocratic elite. In the far west, he appointed his son to rule over a place named Jyestha-pura. An inscription relates that Narasimhagupta, the ruler of Indrapura, was a vassal of Mahendravarman and Ishanavarman. A local leader called Bhadrayuddha acknowledged Ishanavarman’s supremacy The ruler of Tamrapura recorded the overlordship of Ishanavarman, in an inscription dated to 627 c. E. After defeating a rebellious prince, Ishanavarman also claimed authority over the settlements of Cakrankapura, Amoghapura, and a text from the capital describes him as a king “who extended the territory of his parents.”
When he died shortly after 637 C. E., his state controlled access to the sea via the Mekong and Bang pakong Rivers. He was succeeded by his son, Bhavavarman II.
Ishvarapura See banteay srei.
Isong Sansong Isong Sansong was a walled fortress located in the area of Seoul, Korea. The walls covered an area of 5.6 hectares (14 acres), and the hilltop location linked with the natural difficulty of access makes it highly likely that it was a strategic fortress. Its dates have not been fully determined, but it was occupied at least during the period of the paekche kingdom before it was absorbed by shilla in the seventh century c. e. It is possible that the walls relate to the Shilla occupation of the Han River Valley. Excavations have revealed very large rectangular buildings within the walls, one such structure attaining a length of 37 meters (122 ft.). There was also a remarkable nine-sided building that might have served a ritual function. Rituals of some sort are also suggested by the recovery of 27 images of horses in clay and iron.
Itazuke Itazuke, a prehistoric settlement of the yayoi culture, located in northern Kyushu, Japan, shows evidence for rice cultivation, pottery making, and weaving, as well as stone reaping knives of a form widespread in China. The Yayoi culture, dated from 300 b. c.e. to 300 C. E., was a vital period in the development of Japanese states. Hitherto the Japanese archipelago had been occupied by the so-called Jomon culture (10,000 B. C.E.-300 b. c.e.) of hunter-gatherers who had begun to be acquainted with the cultivation of rice and some local plants toward the end of this period. The Yayoi culture by contrast was characterized by the adoption of sophisticated methods of rice cultivation long since practiced in china, the forging and casting of iron and bronze artifacts, a weaving industry, and much evidence for increasing trade and social complexity. Itazuke is located in the direct and early path of any influence or immigrants from Korea. Korean societies had been cultivating rice and interacting with chinese states for centuries before the development of the Yayoi culture, and it is to be expected that they would have had contact with the occupants of Kyushu. A long-standing question is whether Yayoi represents an actual immigration of Korean colonists or the local development of Jomon groups under Korean influence.
When Itazuke was discovered in 1918, mainland bronze swords and halberds were found there. Excavations since 1949 have uncovered the remains of an early Yayoi community with evidence for the cultivation and storage of rice and the manufacture of pottery vessels in the vicinity of rice husks, some of which adhered to the wet clay before firing to leave impressions. There were also spindle whorls, an innovation revealing a weaving industry The site was ringed by a ditch up to 1.5 meters deep and 4.5 meters (4.9 by 14.85 ft.) across, associated with two other ditches that might have been designed for the control of water flows or for defense. Sharp cut marks on the side suggest that metal tools were used, though none have survived. The Yayoi ceramics and the stone projectile points are similar to those of the Jomon occupation phase, indicating that even if there were some immigrants from the mainland at the beginning of the Yayoi period, the area’s preceding inhabitants remained.
Jainism Jainism is an Indian religion with about 3 million adherents. Followers observe five principles: celibacy, truthfulness, rejection of personal possessions, pacifism, and absence of theft. Jain temples are occasionally encountered in early historic cities, but this religion has never received the same world following as buddhism, nor has it rivaled Hinduism at home in INDIA. Nevertheless, it has survived in India, and it is recorded that Mahatma Gandhi was much influenced by the ascetic qualities of Jainism. Believers look on Vardhamana Mahavira (sixth century B. C.E.), the great hero, as the most recent leader of their religion, which is at least as old as Buddhism. In fact, Mahavira was numbered the 24th leader, or Tirthankara, of the Jains. He was born in Vaisali, and in many respects his early life resembles that of his near contemporary, the Buddha, for he too left his home and spent several years wandering the Ganges (Ganga) Valley in search for salvation. He also found enlightenment when aged 42 and became what was known as a jina, or conqueror. This name was applied to the religion as a whole. After preaching his doctrine and founding an order of monks, he died at the age of 72 years at the village of Pava, near ancient PATALIPUTRA.
Jainism benefited greatly from royal patronage, specifically that of candragupta maurya (c. 325-297 B. C.E.), who reputedly became a Jain monk himself. During his reign, a schism divided the Jains into two sects. This followed a migration away from the Jain homeland by some monks who anticipated a famine. Others stayed behind, and when the migrants returned, they found that their coreligionists had adopted unacceptable customs, such as the wearing of white robes where the norm was nakedness. This schism endures to this day.
See also maurya empire.
Further reading: Dundas, P The Jains. Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge, 2002; Parikh, V Jainism and the New Spirituality. Milan: Peace Publications, 2002; Tobias, M. Life Force: The World of Jainism. Paris: J’ai lu Editions, 2000.
Jalilpur Jalilpur is a site of the Early Harappan or INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION, located near the Ravi River in Pakistan. It covers an area of 13 hectares (32.5 acres). Excavations directed by M. R. Mughal in 1971 uncovered evidence for two phases of occupation. The earlier yielded many bone artifacts and ceramics, but no evidence for copper working. The later included pottery of the KOT DIJI phase of the Early Harappan, together with human figurines, shell and FAIENCE bangles, and beads of agate and carnelian. Cattle bones dominate in the faunal assemblage, followed by domestic sheep and goats.
Janapada Janapada is an Indian term for a state with a capital, sustaining area, and political boundaries. It derives from the word jana, “tribe.” Janapadas developed in the Ganges (Ganga) Valley during the sixth to fourth centuries B. C.E., and oral traditions record their names. However, endemic rivalries and conflict reduced their number by absorption, and by about 350 B. C.E. the state of MAGADHA ruled most of northern India. Much information on the janapadas and their participation in trade can be obtained from the silver punch-marked coins that were issued from at least 500 b. c.e.
Jandial temple The Jandial temple is situated on an eminence about 600 meters (1,980 ft.) to the north of the northern gate at Sirkap, the second city of taxila in Pakistan. Sirkap was built by bactrian Greeks and was a laid out on a precise grid plan. Excavations revealed a classical Greek temple. sir John marshall excavated the temple between 1913 to 1934 after a preliminary examination by sir Alexander cunningham in 1863-64 revealed wall foundations. This late structure was removed, and a further two meters down Marshall traced the plan of a Greek temple that incorporated sandstone Ionic columns. It is 47.5 meters (156.7 ft.) long and 25.5 meters (74.2 ft.) wide. Marshall compared its plan, which included a front porch (pronaos), a sanctuary (naos), and a back porch (opisthodomos), with the temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the Parthenon in Athens and concluded that the temple dates to the period of Greek dominance at Taxila. Even the methods of construction, seen in the joining of the parts of the Ionic columns, with a central dowel were typically Greek. Philostratus (c. 170-245 C. E.) may well have been describing this very temple in his Life of Apollonius when he wrote that waiting for admittance to the city, he saw a temple in shell-like stone, bearing bronze panels on the walls recording events in the conquests of Alexander the great.
Jataka tales Jataka tales are a series of Indian stories that describe events in the lives of the Buddha before he attained enlightenment. The Jataka stories often contain a moral and are the inspiration behind themes depicted on Buddhist temples and monasteries. The reliefs at sanchi and bharut and the frescoes in the ajanta caves illustrate many Jataka stories. The popularity of the Jatakas is well illustrated at the mogao caves near dunhuang, where a famous incident is depicted: The future Buddha has the equivalent weight of his own flesh cut off to save the life of a dove. There are 547 Jataka stories, and it is thought that Prince Mahendra took them to sri Lanka in the third century b. c.e. Each story has three parts. After an introduction, the Buddha describes his experiences in previous lives, when he was a bodhisattva. Sometimes he took the form of a king or a hermit, but on other occasions he was portrayed as a monkey, horse, or elephant. Finally, the story details the companions of the Buddha during his previous lives. On many occasions, the Jakata tales describe people and places that can be identified historically and throw light on life in india during the time of the JANAPADAS, or early states, in the Ganges (Ganga) Valley The 256th story, known as the Jarudapana Jataka, saw the future Buddha as a caravan guide during the time of King Brahmadatta of Varanasi (formerly Benares). The caravan was made up of merchants with a variety of goods carried on carts. Being thirsty in their travels, they dug a well, but they found only jewels. The bodhisattva advised them to stop digging, but they greedily continued until they disturbed the king of the naga, or snakes. He blew poisonous air on them, and they all died, except the bodhisattva.
Jaugada Jaugada is a city located on the bank of the Rishikulya River in Orissa province, eastern INDIA. It is particularly well known as the location of a rock edict inscribed during the reign of asoka (268-235 b. c.e.), the Mauryan emperor, which was addressed to the people of Samapa, presumably the early name of the site. Excavations in 1956-57 revealed that the massive mud ramparts, which enclosed an area of about 65 hectares (162.5 ft.), were more than 20 meters (66 ft.) wide and still stood almost five meters (16.5 ft.) high. The interior incorporated structures made of stone and brick, and occupation, according to the recovery of coins, lasted into the kushan period.
See also maurya empire.
Jayaksetrasiva See wat baset.
Jayatataka The Jayatataka was an immense BARAY, or reservoir, constructed at angkor in Cambodia during the reign of jayavarman vii (r. 1181-1219 c. e.), but now dry Its outline is easily seen from the air. There was an island temple at its center, known today as neak pean. According to the INSCRIPTIONS, the complex was a representation of the sacred lake anavatapta. This lake, located north of the Himalayas, was held in Buddhist writings and practice to have magical powers. It was the origin of four great rivers, the Amu Dar’ya, Tarim, Indus, and Ganges (Ganga), and its water, cooled by protective mountains that shielded it from sun and rain, was used in royal consecration ceremonies under Emperor asoka (268-235 B. C.E.) of the maurya empire dynasty in India. It was thought to bestow divinity on the sovereign. Queen Maya, mother of the Buddha, was bathed there to purify her before she was dressed in sacred clothes and flowers. Anavatapta water was taken daily to the court of Asoka for his own use and for that of his most holy followers. The Neak Pean temple in the center of the Jayatataka incorporates four stone images—a horse, a lion, an ox, and an elephant—on each side. The water in the central pool gushes through their mouths in a precise match for the way the Lake Anavatapta water emerges from the lake so that the temple was certainly a source for purification and ritual ablutions. Thus those traveling to the temple and bathing in its sacred water could wash away the slime of their sins. Such an interpretation for the purpose of the Angkorian barays runs counter to the more mundane supposition that they were constructed to supply irrigation water to rice fields.
See also buddhism.
Jayavarman I of Chenla (c. 635-680 c. e.) Jayavarman I was a ruler whose royal ancestry can be traced back through his great-grandfather, Ishanavarman of Chenla (877-99 C. E.), to the earliest recorded kings of one of the major polities of Chenla.
CHENLA is the name in Chinese texts of a state that controlled Cambodia between 550 and 800 c. e. A close analysis of the available inscriptions, in conjunction with archaeological evidence, suggests that this was a period of state formation, in which there was a series of competing polities. There is a consistent thread of evidence for the formation of a centralized state in Cambodia well before the foundation of the kingdom of angkor. Jayavarman’s inscriptions, which are found over a relatively wide area including the lowlands bordering the Mekong River and the GREAT LAKE and thence west into Battambang, provide evidence for the tightening of central power and control through the appointment of ministers with a range of new titles. Through this administrative structure, the ruler issued edicts on land ownership and the collection of revenue in the form of goods and labor. One text also describes Jayavarman as the conqueror of the circle of his enemies, and another records his campaigning in autumn, when his enemy’s moats were dry. “Innumerable vassal kings,” he claimed, obeyed his commands. In combat, he was “a living incarnation of victory, the scourge of his enemies, lord of the land inherited from his ancestors, and conqueror of yet more lands.” The king appointed the author of another inscription as his rajasabhapadi, or president of the royal court, and allowed him to use a white parasol and a golden vase. Jayavarman also issued a rajna, or legal edict, confirming the ownership of temple property, and warning “that those who contest the king’s orders, will be punished.”
New official titles are informative of the duties of the ruling aristocracy. One family held the priestly position of hotar. A member was made a mahasvaphadi and was given the governorship of a place called Sresthapura. His younger brother was successively officer of the royal guard, custodian of royal regalia, and chief of the rowers; finally, by order of the king, he was given a substantial military command. There were a samantagajapadi, chief of the royal elephants, and a dhanyakarapadi, chief of the royal grain stores. A further inscription, probably from this reign, specified the quantities of salt to be distributed by barge to various foundations and prohibited the imposition of tax on the ships that transported this vital commodity.
Jayavarman II (c. 770-834 c. e.) Jayavarman II was revered as the sovereign who founded the kingdom of Angkor in the early ninth century c. e.
INSCRIPTIONS show that he engaged in much warfare but also was responsible for founding several temples. Two sources of evidence illuminate his reign and achievements. The first involves the inscriptions set up when he was alive and those that describe him as a historic, founding figure. The second is the evidence of archaeology. Two contemporary inscriptions suggest that he was living at or near the huge walled city of banteay prei nokor, east of the Mekong River, ruling during the last two decades of the eighth century c. e. The next inscription describes his dedicating a foundation to the north, in the region of the independent polity of Sambhupura. It describes Jayavarman as king of the Earth surrounded by the ocean. The inscription of sdok kak thom, dated 260 years later than the event, describes how Jayavarman returned from Java to rule in the holy city of indrapura. This is more likely to reflect a skirmish against the neighboring cham civilization than a sojourn in distant Java in Indonesia. The inscription records that the king ordered Shivakaivalya, ancestor of the family of Sdok Kak Thom, to move himself, family, and followers to a place probably in the vicinity of Angkor.
According to a second inscription, these early years saw much warfare, for he evidently ordered Prthivinaren-dra, an official known as a mratan, to pacify all districts. Jayavarman rewarded his generals with land grants: An inscription from Thvar Kdei in Kompong Thom province, dated 150 years after these events, records how the king endowed land to vap Jataveda; vap was a new honorific title. He also granted land to one of his wives. Jayavarman established himself at hariharalaya on the northern margin of the Great Lake. However, he moved his capital on several occasions, for we next find him at Amarendra-pura, which was probably at the western end of the western BARAY of Angkor.
A later move took him to the kulen hills, described in the inscriptions as Mahendraparvata, Mountain of the Great indra, where he had himself consecrated the supreme king of kings, in the presence of an image of SIVA that was named KAMRATENG JAGAT TA RAJA, or DEVARAJA, “the god who is king.” There would henceforth be only one “lord of the lower Earth” who would be the CHAKRAVARTIN, or universal overlord. Finally, Jayavarman
II returned to Hariharalaya, where he died in about 835 c. e. In terms of archaeology, it is likely that Banteay Prei Nokor, the temple of Trapheang Phong at Hariharalaya, AK YUM at BANTEAY choeu, and Rong Chen on the Kulen uplands date from his reign. Only archaeological excavations and the fortuitous discovery of more inscriptions can add further information about a king revered as the founder of the kingdom even 250 years after his death.
Jayavarman III (r. 834-877 c. e.) Jayavarman III, son of Jayavarman II (c. 770-834 c. e.), was the second king of the first dynasty of Angkor in Cambodia. Little is known about his life and achievements.
An INSCRIPTION from just north of Siem Reap ascribes the foundation of a temple to the year in which Jayavarman
III ascended the throne. The text describes how, after the king failed to capture a wild elephant while hunting, a divinity promised to secure the animal if the king built a sanctuary there. Some other temples are known to date to the reign of Jayavarman III, indicating continuing interest in the region of Angkor. Due north of AK yum, but on the opposite side of the western baray, lies the temple of Prasat Kok Po. An inscription records the erection of a
Statue of Vishnu here by Prithivindrapandita, a guru of the king, in 857. Jayavarman III may also have initiated the construction of the bakong at hariharalaya. He was succeeded by indravarman i (877-99 c. e.).
Jayavarman IV (r. 928-942 c. e.) King Jayavarman IV of Angkor in Cambodia is often described as a usurper who established an alternative capital at Lingapura, now known as Koh Ker.
In fact, he was the son of King indravarman I’s (877-899 c. e.) daughter, Mahendradevi, and was married to his aunt, who was a half-sister of King yashovarman i (r. 889-910 c. e.). According to the loose rules governing the succession, therefore, he had a legitimate claim through the proper female line, even if he seems to have claimed kingship while the sons of Yashovarman continued to rule from Angkor. Jayavarman IV must have been a very energetic, even charismatic, ruler, because he founded and had constructed a new capital center on a huge scale. Lingapura was a walled city 1,200 meters square (1,440 sq. yds.), enclosing an inner walled precinct containing the state temple complex, known as Prasat Thom. The sacred precinct within houses the principal temple pyramid, raised on seven tiers of descending size. He also constructed a BARAY that involved digging out the rocky substrate. Lingapura is surrounded by a series of subsidiary temples covering an area of 35 square kilometers (14 sq. mi.).
Some of the satellite temples at Lingapura contain exhaustive lists of the workers assigned to the construction of the capital. These inscriptions describe how construction was based on the mobilization of labor from many provinces, and taxation in kind, particularly rice, was levied to sustain workers. Provincial inscriptions also suggest that the king had a broad hold over the kingdom. one describes Jayavarman IV as a great warrior, who ruined his enemy on the field of battle; another called him king of Cambodia: “Fierce in battle, this King’s arrows cloud the sky and fill the eyes of his arrogant enemies with the darkness of the night.” Punishment awaited those who disobeyed a royal edict: They would be caged by the elders of the district and placed before the king for sentence.
Jayavarman V (r. 968-1001 c. e.) Jayavarman V succeeded his father, Rajendravarman (r 944-68 c. e.), as king of Angkor in Cambodia when only 10 years old.
High court officials dominated his first years, but by the time he was 17 his state temple, known as Hemasringa-giri, or the Mountain with Golden summits, was under construction at angkor. Now known as Ta Keo, it was never completed but is of grandiose size. one of the young king’s advisers, Yajnavaraha, was responsible for the foundation of the temple of banteay srei northeast of the capital. Jayavarman’s inscriptions are concentrated in the good agricultural lands to the north and west of the
TONLE SAP, east to the Mekong River, and then south toward the upper delta. Unusually, his reign appears to have been relatively peaceful, and his inscriptions reveal the maintenance of large estates by the aristocracy and the meritorious donation of gifts to the gods. one text also describes how the king, when aged 16, founded two religious corporations with rights to land holding, inheritance, and exemption from taxes.
Jayavarman VI (r. 1080-1107 c. e.) King Jayavarman VI of Angkor in Cambodia was a usurper who was a member of the aristocratic Mahidharapura lineage of the upper Mun Valley in Thailand.
In about 1080, Divakarapandita, who had participated in the consecration of udayadityavarman ii’s (r. 1050-66 c. e.) golden lingam at the baphuon and who held a high court position during the next three reigns, crowned him. Jayavarman VI made no attempt to relate his ancestry to previous rulers at Angkor. His father was a local potentate in a border region to the northwest, beyond the Dang Raek range. A later inscription from phnom rung names Hiranyavarman and Hiranyalakshmi as parents of Jayavarman VI.
See also banteay srei.
Jayavarman VII (r. 1181-1219 c. e.) Jayavarman VII was one of the great kings of Angkor in Cambodia.
After the kingdom was attacked and sacked by the chams, he defeated the occupying enemy on land and on the GREAT LAKE and reestablished the rule of the Mahidharapura dynasty. Jayavarman had a new capital city constructed at ANGKOR, now known as angkor thom. Three kilometers square (1.2 sq. mi.), the city is surrounded by a high wall, five colossal gateways, and a wide moat. The BAYON, his temple mausoleum, lies at the center of the new city. The royal palace was located in a separate walled precinct north of the Bayon and gave access to the ELEPHANT TERRACE, a reviewing stand commanding a large open area. Jayavarman VII was a Buddhist king, and his temple mausoleum contained a large statue of the Buddha. The city gates, the Bayon, and his other major foundations incorporated large stone heads thought to represent the king merged with the Buddha. The Jay-atataka BARAY, or reservoir, northwest of Angkor Thom was built in his reign; the island temple at the center, known as neak pean, was a holy place where pilgrims could bathe and wash away their earthly sins. Two very large temple complexes now known as ta prohm and PREAH KHAN were built just beyond the city walls. They were dedicated to the king’s parents. A third massive temple at the remote banteay chmar was built to honor the king’s son and four military heroes. The foundation inscriptions of Preah Khan and Ta Prohm set out the number of villages and thousands of workers assigned to provide goods, from rice to wax and clothing, to maintain
It is most unusual to encounter lifelike sculptures of Angkorian kings. This fine bust depicts Jayavarman VII, the great builder king who ruled Angkor from 1181 until 1219. (Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, NY)
The temples. Jayavarman had roads and bridges constructed across the kingdom. Rest houses were strategically placed to provide shelter for travelers, many of whom would have been pilgrims visiting the many holy places. There were also hospitals that, like the temples, were ascribed villages and workers to supply them with all their needs.
The Bayon and Banteay Chmar temples contain reliefs that show the royal army in conflict, on land and water, with the Chams. They also depict many aspects of life in the city and countryside, including a woman in labor, a market scene, aristocratic feasting and servants preparing food, chess players, and fishermen. several statues of the king survive; that from Preah Khan of Kompong svay is the best known, revealing a serene and regal image.
See also buddhism; cham civilization.
Jayavarman VIII (r. 1243-1296) Jayavarman VIII, king of Angkor in Cambodia, a dedicated adherent to Hinduism, ordered that all Buddhist statues at Angkor be destroyed or modified to accord with Hindu practice.
The image of the Buddha, which had dominated the central shrine of the bayon, was smashed and the pieces thrown
Into the shaft beneath. it was restored and rededicated in 1935. It was during this reign that the last major religious building, the Mangalartha, was constructed; Jayavarman, however, actively remodeled several older buildings, including the reviewing terraces east of the palace.
Jayavarman of Funan (c. 480 c. e.) Jayavarman of Funan was known as a victorious ruler and a founder of temples to Vishnu.
Toward the end of the fifth century c. E. kings of the maritime state of FUNAN in Cambodia began to set up stone INSCRIPTIONS written in the exotic SANSKRIT language. The few that survive reveal that there was a line of kings in which the succession on at least one occasion passed from father to son; that they had adopted the honorific title varman, “shield” or “protector”; that women enjoyed high status; and that the elite founded temples. one of these texts mentions a person whose name began with Ja-, probably Jayavarman, who had been victorious in battle against a king whose name began with Vira-. He founded many sanctuaries dedicated to vishnu and placed his son, GUNAVARMAN, in charge of one, which had been “wrested from the mud.” A second inscription cites King Jayavarman and his son, rudravarman (Protege by siva), and describes how the former named the son of a Brahman as his inspector of property A third text also mentions King Jayavarman and his victories won over rivals. It then records the foundation of a hermitage, reservoir, and residence by his queen, kulaprabhavati.
Jhukar Jhukar is a site in the Indus Valley that has given its name to a culture that is known to have continued to occupy several sites of the INDUS valley civilization during the early second millennium b. c.e. The few exposures of jhukar material, which is best known on the basis of the excavations at chanhu daro in Pakistan, reveal elements of continuity and change. Thus while the writing system and distinctive seals of the earlier civilization were no longer found, circular seals bearing geometric designs were still employed. The pottery, revealing different designs, was derived from the preceding tradition. At Chanhu Daro, the people of the Jhukar phase continued to occupy the same mound and to reemploy bricks but did not invest the same energy in civic amenities, such as the drainage system. The Jhukar phase, which is dated 2000-1800 b. c.e., is important in the sense that it reveals continued occupation of some earlier urban sites, rather than the drastic and sudden demise of the civilization.
See also amri.
Jia Yi (201-168 b. c.e.) Jia Yi, a statesman during the early Western Han dynasty, wrote a widely regarded study of the preceding Qin dynasty entitled Guo Chin Lun (The Faults of Qin).
He lived in a period that followed the tumultuous end of the WARRING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B. C.E.), which culminated in the victory of Qin and the imposition of a brutal centralized autocracy under the first emperor, qin SHIHUANGDI (259-210 B. C.E.). The early Han rulers and bureaucrats sought a means of ruling an immense empire other than through repressive coercion, and the period witnessed many philosophical tracts on governance centered on taoism but including elements of Confucianism. The work in particular focuses on the reasons underlying the successful peasant revolt against the second Qin emperor, which pitched poorly armed rustics against the largest and best-equipped army in the world. He pinpointed the difference between successfully defeating enemies and creating the empire on the one hand and maintaining peace on the other. For this, the ruler required empathy with his subjects, ensuring good agricultural practice, avoiding harsh taxation and repression. The opposite path toward autocratic repression was followed and led to the downfall of the dynasty in the face of desperate and determined peasants.
See also chen she; confucius.
Jin The state of Jin was located in the valley of the Fen River, in the modern Chinese province of Shanxi. It occupied a strategic location between the central plains and the heartland of the Western Zhou state and the western foothills of the Taihang mountain range. The state was responsible for guarding against any incursions or threats from the Zhou heartland. The history of the Jin state during the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 b. c.e.) was one of rivalry and conflict, particularly with the rising ascendancy of CHU in the south.
Archaeological excavations have greatly added to the knowledge of the Jin state, particularly the investigations at TIANMA-QUCUN. These have resulted in the uncovering of more than 600 burials. A group of 17 tombs excavated between 1992 and 1995 were equipped with access ramps together with pits containing the remains of chariots and horses, dating to the late Western Zhou and early EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY periods. These graves contained bronzes inscribed with the names of the Jin elite, including sets of bells. Remarkably, some bronze vessels were never intended for use, because the lids and bodies were cast as one piece, and one specimen still had the central clay core in place. The Jin lords may also have been antique collectors, for a Neolithic jade cong and jades of SHANG STATE origin were recovered. Jade ornaments are a particular feature of these graves, and in the case of Burial 31, they were cut to cover the face of the deceased.
RISE OF JIN
Jin, like several other states that came to the fore politically during the Spring and Autumn period, had its origins in the wars of succession that followed the death of KING WU (d. c. 1043 B. C.E.), the first ruler of the western
ZHOU DYNASTY. The succession should have passed to his oldest son, Song, who under the name Cheng was to rule from about 1042 until 1006 b. c.e. However, a younger brother of King Wu, Zhou Gong Dan, declared himself regent, on the grounds that Song was too young to rule alone. This fomented a civil war between the forces of Zhou Gong Dan and Cheng on the one hand and those of Dan’s brothers on the other. Zhou Gong Dan fought successful campaigns to the east of the capital and greatly expanded the area under Zhou control. In a time-honored tradition, rulers of the new territories were found among the loyal members of the ruling lineage or high-ranking followers, and Tangshu Yu, one of the brothers of King Cheng, was granted the fief that was to develop into the state of Jin.
The initial threat from the north was met by the formation of the subsidiary state of Quwo in 746 b. c.e. This proved a Trojan horse, because in 678 Wu Gong of Quwo defeated the Jin and was recognized as the duke of Jin. His successor, Jin Xi’an Gong (r. 676-651 b. c.e.), expanded the power of Jin by absorbing 16 smaller states in its orbit. In an act typical of the power struggles that accompanied the death or murder of a Jin ruler, Jin Xi’an Gong had all the descendants of former Jin rulers put to death. After his own death there was a war over the succession involving his sons. One of these, Hui Gong, was captured by the Chu after a battle, and finally only one son, Jin Wen Gong (r. 636-628 b. c.e.), was still alive. He ruled that no member of the royal line was permitted to hold a court position. In 635 b. c.e. he further expanded Jin territory after a timely intervention to assist the king of Zhou. Three years later, in a temporary alliance with QI and QIN, Jin defeated the forces of the Chu in the Battle of Chengpu, but the Jin were defeated in 598 b. c.e. at the Battle of Mi. This led to a remarkable resolve among the states to engage in mutually agreed disarmament, but as are most such treaties, it was short lived, and Jin defeated Chu again at Yanling in 574. In the same year Jin Li Gong was murdered and succeeded by Jin Dao Gong (572-558 B. C.E.). In 546 B. C.E. there was a conference at Shangqui, leading to an agreement that there should be an agreed ceiling on the number of war chariots maintained by each state. Four decades of peace between Jin and Chu ensued. This period of external peace was not accompanied by internal harmony. By the end of the sixth century B. C.E., civil war in the state of Jin saw six factions reduced to four, and in 453 b. c.e. three houses remained: zhao, HANN, and WEI. In 403 b. c.e. each was officially recognized as a state in its own right, and Jin came to an end.
OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES
Archaeological research at XINTIAN in Shanxi province has revealed many features of the Jin capital from 585 b. c.e. The site included three walled cities, the smallest one by one kilometer in extent. It is thought that one of these was for the ruling lineage, and the others for lesser members of the elite. Each incorporates raised stamped-earth platform foundations for temple and residential buildings. Further walled precincts also lay beyond the central core. One of the most important aspects of the archaeological research has been the identification of specialist areas for casting bronzes, making bone artifacts, and manufacturing pottery A number of cemeteries have been examined, some including large and richly endowed elite graves dating to the Spring and Autumn period, while another enclave held a concentration of pits containing the skeletons of sacrificed cattle, horses, sheep, and chickens. These were part of a ritual in which individuals took an oath of allegiance to their lineage head; the text was inscribed or painted onto jade tablets that were then placed over the sacrificed animals. The domestic quarters of the mass of the Jin population reveal the presence of house foundations, storage pits, wells, and drainage facilities. The site was abandoned in 369 b. c.e.
Jinancheng Jinancheng is a city occupied under the Chinese kingdom of chu during the warring states PERIOD (475-221 B. C.E.). It is located about 17 kilometers (10.2 mi.) north of the Chang (Yangtze) River in Hubei province. Excavations there have revealed much vital information on the nature of a major urban center during this period, when the states of China were embroiled in a long struggle for supremacy This ended in 221 b. c.e. with the victory of the qin over all rivals, including the kingdom of Chu. As might be expected, Jinancheng was stoutly defended by a broad moat and wide stamped-earth walls up to 40 meters (132 ft.) thick. There were six main entrances into the city and two water gates to admit the course of the two rivers that flowed through the interior. Raised stamped-earth platforms that were concentrated in the northeastern sector of the interior supported the palaces of the elite together with their temples. The southwestern quarter included a number of ceramic-kiln sites for producing roof tiles and domestic pottery, while there was also a specialist bronze foundry The city covered 1,600 hectares (4,000 acres) and would have supported a substantial population, to judge from the 400 or more wells that have been uncovered by archaeologists.
Jincun In 1928 heavy rain revealed the top of a tomb at Jincun, northwest of the eastern zhou dynasty capital at LUOYANG in China. Eight tombs were looted and the contents distributed to collectors. Fortunately, Bishop w. C. white was then resident at Jincun and described the necropolis. The tombs had octagonal wooden chambers joined by a doorway to long ramps, one of which reached 80 meters (264 ft.) in length. Three of the ramps were lined by long pits containing the remains of horses. The looted artifacts were outstandingly rich. Three giant ding tripods lined the doorway giving access to the tomb, each almost one meter in diameter. within the chamber, the upper part of the wooden walls was decorated with a band of inlaid glass and bronze disks. some of the bronze vessels and mirrors were inlaid with gold, silver, or glass, and there were silver vessels and a statuette. A jade and gold pectoral is now in the possession of a washington,
D. C. museum. The typology of these artifacts points to a date in the fourth century b. c.e., the warring states PERIOD (475-221 B. C.E.), and it is difficult not to ascribe such magnificent interments to the royal lineage of the EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY.
Jingdi (Liu Qi; Admired Emperor) (188-141 b. c.e.) Jingdi was the fourth major king of the Western Han dynasty in China.
His father was the emperor wendi (202-157 b. c.e.) and his mother the empress Dou. Jingdi’s magnificent tomb was discovered in 1990. The terra-cotta army of the first emperor, qin shihuangdi (259-210 b. c.e.), is well known for its size and number of clay statues of soldiers. That of Han Jingdi covers five times the area of the famous terracotta army. There are 86 pits in association with his mausoleum, containing at least 40,000 clay figures. These were modeled at about a third of lifesize and were so constructed that their arms could be moved. Each was painted and clothed in silk. On the basis of the seals found, it is thought that each pit might represent a department of state. The one containing 400 dogs and 200 sheep, for example, would represent the kitchens. Unlike in the tomb pits of Qin Shihuangdi, there was less concentration on war and soldiery. The tomb also contained models of domestic animals, farm implements, tools, wheeled vehicles, and ceramic storage jars still brimming with grain. There are chisels, plowshares, model granaries, and chariots. Eunuchs and serving women were modeled in molds, and their faces retouched to take on an individual appearance. Adjacent to this main mound, there are subsidiary tombs for the empress and the favorite concubine. These too have many associated pits; at least 31 are already known for the empress herself.
Wendi had followed a policy of emasculating the power of dependent kingdoms by diminishing their size or replacing them where possible with commanderies (centrally controlled provinces). In 154 b. c.e., the third year of his reign, the king of wu revolted against Jingdi, who, as heir apparent, had been responsible for the death of THE KING OF wu’s son in an argument over a chess game. Wu was joined by other eastern-seaboard kingdoms, particularly CHU and zhao. The imperial army was too powerful, and government victory provided the opportunity to replace the kingdoms with provinces. A similar opportunity arose to the south when the king of Changsha, formerly the powerful state of Chu, died without an heir in 157 b. c.e. The new king was a member of Jingdi’s own lineage. These changes had the effect of greatly expanding central control at the expense of distant but powerful semi-independent kingdoms. During the decade from 155 b. c.e., no fewer than 14 of Jingdi’s sons were given their own kingdoms. The regional kings, however, had their powers severely reduced in that their advisers and ministers were increasingly appointed from the capital rather than through local favor.
Jingdi also reimposed a tax of 1/30th on production, which led to a considerable accumulation of central capital. While some of this wealth was stored against the possibility of adverse agricultural returns, it was also deployed to maintain central craft workshops. The models in Jingdi’s tomb stress the importance attached to agriculture under Jingdi, and the infrastructure necessary for a prosperous economy, so vital to the maintenance of the state, was provided through a requirement for corvee labor by the peasantry According to contemporary records, the vast majority of the population were agricultural peasants. In addition to serving two years of military conscription, they were required to work for the state for one month in 12. Thus a network of road, canals, and bridges was constructed. Jingdi was succeeded by one of his sons, WUDI (157-87 B. C.E.).
Jingyanggang Jingyanggang is a large urban site of the LONGSHAN CULTURE, located on the left bank of the Huang (Yellow) River in Shandong province, central China. Its stamped-earth walls enclosed an area of about 38 hectares (95 acres), making it one of the largest such sites of this period in China. Excavations within the walled enclosure have revealed substantial raised platforms of stamped earth, one of which is 520 by 175 meters (1,716 by 577.5 ft.) in extent. Early written graphs have been found on the surface of a pottery vessel there.
Jinshin disturbance The Jinshin disturbance refers to a civil war that broke out in Japan in 672 C. E. after the death of the emperor tenji (626-672). At that juncture, there were no rules for the succession, and close kin of the emperor could claim equal rights irrespective of their sex. The Jinshin disturbance involved the son and the brother of Tenji. The deceased emperor had nominated his son, Prince Otomo, and bypassed Prince Oama, his uncle. The war was fought to a background of increasing centralization of power and authority in the yamato court at the expense of the provincial magnates. Under these circumstances, Prince Oama withdrew from the court with the broadcast intention of secluding himself in a monastery in the Yoshino Mountains. However, with the support of the provincial families, who had chafed under the centralizing regime of Tenji, he defeated Otomo. The latter committed suicide and was declared the emperor Kobun only posthumously in 1870. Paradoxically, having triumphed with provincial support, the new emperor TENMU (Oama) (631?-86) initiated even more intensive centralizing policies that ultimately led to the foundation of the NARA STATE.
Jinyang Jinyang in Shanxi province, China, was an early capital of the JIN state during the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 B. C.E.). Its cemetery lay beyond the northwestern wall, and more than 100 graves have been identified there. In 1987 the intact grave of Zhao Meng, a minister to the Jin court, was excavated and found to be intact. His three nested coffins were centrally placed in a rectangular chamber 14 meters (46.2 ft.) below the ground. Made of cedar, the chamber measured 11 by nine meters (36.3 by 29.7 ft.) and was encased in a layer of charcoal and stones. The primary burial lay in the center of this chamber and was accompanied by four coffins containing the remains of two male and two female attendants. The completeness of this burial permits the tracing of the mortuary rituals. Surviving documents of the Spring and Autumn mortuary practices reveal that first the corpse was washed, dressed, and laid out in state, for a period determined by the status of the deceased. The next stage in the mortuary ritual was to organize the funeral procession of carriages and chariots that wound their way to the cemetery to place the grave offerings around the central coffins.
In the case of emperors, the first stage would last for up to seven months. Zhao Meng had been treated thus, and while his actual clothing has not survived, the jade and gold ornaments found with the body reveal certain aspects of his dress. He wore a belt tied with a golden buckle from which two swords hung, each with a jade handle and pommel. Jade plaques used to cover his eyes were probably part of a cloth shroud. He wore two jade archer’s thimbles, and the many plaques of jade on his skeleton had been attached to his robe. The body was then placed into the first of three lacquered coffins that were decorated with gold foil.
Zhao Meng was accompanied by a rich array of offerings that represented his social status and activities in life. One of the subsidiary coffins held a set of 19 bells and 12 stone chimes. The man within was probably the minister’s music master. A second was linked with chariot fittings, surely the chief charioteer’s. Seventy ritual bronze vessels were stacked in profusion beyond the head of the coffins. Some of these contained food remains that included grain and the bones of birds, cattle, pigs, and sheep. A pit adjacent to this tomb contained the remains of 44 horses and 15 chariots that would have been employed in the funerary procession.
Jito (645-703) Jito was the 41st Tenno, or sovereign, of Japan.
A daughter of the emperor tenji (626-72), she married her uncle, Oama, who later became the emperor temmu (631?-686). She reigned from 686 to 697 C. E., when she abdicated in favor of her grandson, Emperor Mommu. A noted poet, she is particularly remembered for her decision to found the great city of fujiwara in the southern
Nara Basin. This move represented a departure from previous imperial residence patterns, whereby the emperor would move periodically from one palace to another. Fuji-wara was a city built on Tang Chinese principles. It was dominated by a large palace compound containing the imperial residence, a reception hall, and government buildings. Beyond the palace walls, a grid system of streets was laid out, and the urban populace was allocated space according to rank. However, this city had a brief life before being abandoned in favor of an even larger center 20 kilometers (12 mi.) to the north at heijo-kyo.
Jones, Sir William (1746-1794) Sir William Jones is best known for his study of Sanskrit and his recognition that this language was related to Latin, Greek, and all other languages of the Indo-European family.
Educated at the University of Oxford, Jones was a gifted linguist who was to become proficient in as many as 28 languages. He also studied law, and it was as a prospective High Court judge that he sailed for Bengal in 1783. His proficiency in languages was already evident in his Persian grammar and his translation from Arabic of the Islamic law of property succession. In INDIA, he applied himself to the Sanskrit language largely to inform himself on traditional Indian law and furthered scholarly studies through founding the Asiatic Society of Bengal. As president of this society in 1786, he read a paper proposing that Greek and Sanskrit had a common origin. This was a pioneer study in comparative linguistics that has exercised a profound influence on all subsequent studies of the Indo-European language family
Jori system The Jori system was a method of subdividing agricultural land, which was part of the taika REFORM of 645 C. E. The yamato state at this period was experiencing a rapid development toward centralized power in the hands of the sovereign. This pattern involved the reduction in the role of local magnates but necessitated the foundation of a strong rural economy as a basis for taxation on production and people. The origins of the Jori system might be far older than the period of the Taiko edict, however, because some prehistoric rice plots uncovered through archaeological research, such as those at the yayoi site of toro, seem to conform to it. Basically, the agricultural land was divided into squares measuring six cho (109 meters) square (131 sq. yds.). This unit was further divided into 36 tsubo, each measuring one cho square and again into 10 equally sized strips called tan. Theoretically, a tan produced sufficient rice to feed one person for a year. The allocation of land by the court for individual use was facilitated by this method, by which even small units of land could be identified.
World History
