RECENSIONS.
Thebes (Luxor) It was the capital of Egypt during the New Kingdom Period (1550-1070 b. c.e.) and the seat of the Theban warrior clans, located on the eastern shore of the Nile some 400 miles south of modern Cairo at modern LUXOR. Originally the city was called Uast or Waset and was built on a flat plain. Thebes was not important as a cult center in the early historical eras. Its present name came from the Greeks, who also called the city Diospolis Magna, the “Great City of the Gods.” Homer celebrated it as the city of a hundred gates and other foreign visitors sang its praises.
During the Old Kingdom Period (2575-2134 b. c.e.), the city was a minor trading post, but the local clans kept
The area secure when the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b. c.e.) brought chaos to the rest of the nation. The Theban lands of that dynasty declared their independence and gave rise to a succession of princes who waged war to unite the nomes and provinces again, with MONTUHOTEP II (r. 2061-2010 b. c.e.) of the
Eleventh Dynasty capturing the capital of the khety clan and putting an end to the civil unrest.
It is believed that Thebes served as a joint capital in that era, but the rulers appear to have taken up residence in a number of locations throughout the year. The Twelfth Dynasty, started by another Theban, amenemhet I (r. 1991-1962 b. c.e.), established a new capital on the border between Upper and Lower Egypt. Governors were in residence in Thebes, ruling over the southern territories for the throne.
During the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1550 b. c.e.), when the hyksos dominated the Delta territories, the Thebans again stood firm, denying the Asiatics access to most of the southern domains. In the early days there was a truce between the two forces, and the Thebans took their herds into the Delta to graze there without incident. The Hyksos were also able to sail past Thebes to trade with the Nubians below the cataracts. The truce ended
Luxor temple, offering a magnificent display of the New Kingdom Period (1550-1070 b. c.e.) architectural achievement and Amu-nite fervor. (Courtesy Thierry Ailleret.)
With an insulting message sent by apophis, the Hyksos ruler, to Ta’o II, the ruler of Thebes (c. 1560 B. C.E.). The Theban armies began to march on the Hyksos strongholds as a result. When Ta’o II died in battle or in an ambush, his son KAMOSE (r. 1555-1550 b. c.e.) entered the war and rolled back the Hyksos forces. He died before taking avaris, the Hyksos capital, and was succeeded by his brother, ’Ahmose, who evicted the Asiatics with campaigns on land and sea. He even sent his armies against the temporary stronghold of the Hyksos at Sharuhen in Palestine, once again chasing the Asiatics all the way to Syria.
As a result of this victory, the god amun received considerable support from the ruling clan, especially at karnak, and the city became the deity’s cult center. The shrines, temples, and buildings erected in Thebes gave it a reputation for splendor and beauty that lasted for centuries. All other cities were judged “after the pattern of Thebes.”
The Tuthmossids of the Eighteenth Dynasty (15501307 B. C.E.) lavished care and wealth upon Thebes, making it the nation’s capital, although Memphis remained an administrative center of government and a temporary residence of the royal clan. During the period of akhenaten (r. 1353-1335 B. C.E.) Thebes was abandoned for el-’amarna, to the north. His death, however, signaled a return to Thebes and a resumption of the building projects and adornment of the temples, shrines, and royal residences. The western shore of Thebes became a vast and beautiful necropolis, as stunning mortuary complexes were built at deir el-bahri (where Montuhotep II had erected his mortuary temple in the Eleventh Dynasty) and in the valley of the kings and the valley
OF THE QUEENS.
When the Ramessids came to power in 1307 b. c.e., they built a new capital, Per-Ramesses, on the site of Avaris, their clan home. Thebes, however, remained popular not only as a residence during certain months of the year but as the site of the royal burial grounds. The deity AMUN remained powerful as well, and the rulers continued to adorn the temples and shrines of the god throughout Egyptian history The rulers of the Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 b. c.e.) and the Late (712-332 b. c.e.) and Ptolemaic (304-30 b. c.e.) Periods did not reside solely in Thebes, but the city received benefices from these dynasties. The Romans continued to lavish shrines and adornments on the site.
Suggested Readings: Livraga, Giorgio. Thebes. Trans. Julian Scott. Boston: New Acropolis, 1986; Manniche, Lise. City of the Dead: Thebes in Egypt. Chicago, 1987; Strudwick, Nigel, and Helen M. Strudwick. Thebes in Egypt: A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999.
Thent Hep was a lesser-ranked consort of ’ahmose (r. 1550-1525 B. C.E.). She was the mother of Princess Hent-Temehu.
Theocritus (d. 250 b. c.e.) Greek creator of pastoral poetry who visited Alexandria
He was a poet from Syracuse who arrived in ALEXANDRIA during the reign of ptolemy ii philadelphus (285-246 B. C.E.). Theocritus was on the island of Cos when he wrote to Ptolemy II, asking him to be his patron. In Alexandria, he became a master of poetry, writing the Idylls, which was copied by later Latins, and other revered works. The Idylls depicts Alexandrian women at a festival.
Theophanies They were the various images of animals or reptiles used by Egyptians to represent certain aspects of the nation’s deities. Particular strengths or abilities were shown in such images to define attributes of the gods. Some theophanies date to Predynastic Periods (before 3000 b. c.e.), and others evolved over the centuries. It was believed that animals, even serpents or reptiles, represented nature in a manner unknown to humans. Their species existed in modes of creation beyond the human awareness. Theophanies thus represented “the otherness” of earth’s creatures and their roles in the ongoing spans of life, called in some eras “the living images of the gods.”
Theshen (fl. 25th century b. c.e.) Counselor of the Fifth Dynasty
He served sahure (r. 2458-2446 b. c.e.) as treasurer, counselor, and companion. Theshen was the son of Zezemoneki and Lady Nubhotep. His tomb, a gift from his father, was prepared for him when he was very young. He added adornments to the various chambers as he prospered.
Thet It was a popular amulet associated with the cult of the goddess isis, called the girdle of isis. The thet was worn by the living and the dead and was a symbol of Isis’s protection.
Thethi (fl. 22nd century b. c.e.) Court official of the Eleventh Dynasty in Thebes
He served in the reigns of inyotef i (2134-2118 b. c.e.) and INYOTEF II (2118-2069 b. c.e.). Thethi was the royal treasurer and a favored courtier during both reigns. The Inyotefs ruled only Thebes and Upper Egypt at that time. Thethi’s stela, the first recorded document of that dynasty, depicts the funeral of Inyotef I and the ascension of Inyotef II to the throne. Thethi prepared Inyotef I’s tomb at THEBES. He was buried near Inyotef I.
Thent Hep (fl. 16th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Thinis (Girga) A site in Upper Egypt just north of abydos, called Girga in modern times, Thinis was the home of the early unifiers of Egypt, c. 3,000 b. c.e. The Thinite royal dynasties of the earlier periods dominated for centuries. A brick mastaba tomb near the site contained vases and jars with the seals of khufu (Cheops; r. 2551-2528 b. c.e.). This mastaba is at beit khallaf
At the end of the First Intermediate Period (21342040 b. c.e.) a battle was fought at Thinis between the Tenth and Eleventh Dynasties. The khetys of the Tenth Dynasty (c. 2000 b. c.e.) and the Thebans of the Eleventh Dynasty (2134-2040 b. c.e.) engaged in military activities there. Prince Herunefer of Thebes died in the confrontation. Khety raids on Thinis and Abydos and the eventual destruction of the ancient gravesites, viewed as a sacrilege, led to montuhotep ii’s unification of Egypt c. 2040 B. C.E. and his destruction of the Khetys.
See also INSTRUCTIONS for merikarF.
Thinite Period This is a term used to designate the earliest dynastic eras, dating to 2920 b. c.e., dated as well from 3150 to 2700 b. c.e. in some lists. The unifiers of Egypt marched on the Delta from thinis (modern Girga) near abydos. They were the so-called followers of HORUS, a militaristic people led by narmer. The Nagada II, or Gerzean, artistic period demonstrates the advances of the Thinite nome of Upper Egypt during the early period. hierakonpolis is part of this artistic era. palettes and MACEHEADS depict the unification of the Two Kingdoms by Narmer and his predecessors. Architecturally Hierakonpolis displayed political centralization and advances in construction. The Palermo stone cites the era’s achievements, and funerary regalia from tombs supplement the documentation.
See also art and architecture; Egypt.
Thoth The ancient god of learning and wisdom, also called Djehuti, he was created from the seed of horus or sprang from the head of set, depending upon which cul-tic tradition was preferred. He was called “the Master of the Healing Arts,” “the Beautiful of Night,” “the Lord of Heavens,” and “the Silent Being” and was also worshiped as “the Excellent Scribe” and “Great of Magic.”
Thoth was usually depicted as a man with the head of an IBIS, and his theophanies were the ibis and the BABOON. He was also considered a moon deity and was sometimes shown carrying a scepter and an ANKH. Thoth was also honored as a scribe deity at hermopolis magna and then assigned greater prominence, assuming the head of a dog-headed ape.
As the patron of the dead, Thoth wears an ATEF crown; as the new moon, a’ah, he is depicted in mummified form. Thoth is credited with inventing the number and the orbits of celestial bodies as the secretary of the gods OSIRIS and re. In his astronomical role he was addressed as “the Governor of the Years,” “the white Disk,” and “the Bull Among the Stars of Heaven.”
Thoth was also a protector of priest-physicians and was associated in some temples with the inundation of the Nile. His great cultic festival was celebrated on the New Year, and he was considered skilled in magic and became the patron of all scribes throughout the nation. Thoth appears in the horus legends and was depicted in every age as the god who “loved truth and hated abomination.”
He is credited with providing the epagomenal days in the Egyptian calendar and with the healing of the eye OF HORUS. Many cultic centers honored Thoth, and he was particularly well served by the Tuthmossid rulers of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 b. c.e.)
Thoth, Book of This was a mysterious text, described as contained in 42 papyri and considered a treasury of occult lore, now lost to the world. The document was reportedly dictated by the god Thoth to priests and scribes and maintained as sacred secrets to be kept hidden from uninitiated eyes.
Two of the sections of the Book of Thoth contained hymns to the god. Four were dedicated to astronomical lore, containing a list of fixed stars, an account of solar and lunar eclipses, and sections concerning the rising of the sun and moon. The skilled astronomers of Egypt had to memorize these texts. Ten rolls of the book dealt with religious matters, supplemented by 10 more rolls dealing with priestly concerns, including obligations and regulations of the various cults. The major thrust of the Book of Thoth was philosophical, with scientific and medical texts.
No longer in existence, or at least not yet discovered, the Book of Thoth was supposed to be kept “inside an iron box, inside a bronze box, covered by a sycamore box, over an ebony or ivory box over a silver box. ...” The Book of Thoth was supposedly hidden in an area of the Nile near koptos. Because of its occult nature, the work has been prominent in esoteric explanations of Egyptian cultic practices, even though the actual texts have never been available for modern studies.
See also setna khamwas (2).
Thuity (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Noble official of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Serving hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.) and possibly TUTHMOSIS I (r. 1504-1492 b. c.e.) and tuthmosis ii (r. 1492-1479 b. c.e.), Thuity was “the Overseer of the Double Gold and Silver House,” the royal residence. He was the successor to ineni in many positions. A hereditary prince and count, Thuity started his court career as a scribe and steward. He led an expedition to punt and then supervised many of Hatshepsut’s building projects. Thuity held titles in the government and in the temple. He was also associated with the great barge called “Beginning of the River-User-het-Amun.” Thuity was buried at THEBES.
Thunany (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Royal military scribe of ancient Egypt
He accompanied tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) on his vast military campaigns. Such scribes were part of Tuthmosis Ill’s military exploits, recording marches, battles, and even botanical specimens encountered during the trek of the armies. Thunany and others could authenticate such campaigns as eyewitnesses. Their testimony was used as the basis for the inscriptions and historical records. Thunany was buried in Thebes, and his tomb contains strong images of his adventures.
Thure (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Military commander and viceroy of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He served tuthmosis i (r. 1504-1492 b. c.e.) in various capacities. Thure was in control of buhen, the Egyptian FORTRESS at WADI HALFA in NUBIA (modern Sudan). He rebuilt that Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.) structure and instituted advanced Egyptian defenses. Thure also became the viceroy of Nubia, called “the King’s Son of Kush.”
As viceroy, Thure directed the digging of wells, the refurbishing of forts and trade centers, and police operation. He was provided with an elite team of soldiers called “the Brave Ones,” who crossed 110 miles of desert to protect a series of wells. As a result, Thure knew the area and the customs of the local populations. Thure advised Tuthmosis I during his campaign to kurgus at the fourth cataract. He had started his career in the reign of AMENHOTEP I (1525-1504 b. c.e.) and provided decades of loyal service to the pharaohs of this historical period.
Thuthotep (fl. 19th century b. c.e.) Princely governor of the Twelfth Dynasty
He served in the reigns of amenemhet ii (1929-1892 b. c.e.), senwosret II (1897-1878 b. c.e.), and senwosret III (1878-1841 b. c.e.) as the governor of hermopolis (Khemenu) nome, called the Hare province. Thuthotep’s father was Prince Kei, or Key, whose father, Nehri, lived to such an advanced age that he stepped aside and allowed Thuthotep to take succession.
The tomb of Thuthotep at el-bersha, famous for its decorations, contains a unique painting depicting the delivery of a colossal statue. The relief shows more than 170 warriors from Thuthotep’s nome pulling the statue in four double rows. The colossus was quarried at hatnub and sent to hermopolis where it was erected in its designated place. The statue is believed to have weighed 60 tons, standing more than 22 feet high. Thuthotep was the official overseeing the safe delivery of the colossus. Priests, soldiers, and other nome officials were involved as well.
Thuya See yuya and thuya.
Ti (fl. 25th century b. c.e.) Royal barber and overseer of the Fifth Dynasty
Ti served kakai (r. 2446-2426 b. c.e.) as a royal barber and overseer of royal lands. He married Princess ne-FERHETEPES (2), Kakai’s daughter, and their sons inherited the rank of prince. Ti served also as the steward of the funerary complexes of dynastic rulers. His elaborate mastaba was discovered in saqqara, and the entrance to his tomb has a pillared vestibule and an open pillared court. stairs descend to a subterranean passage that leads to an antechamber and burial room. Princess Neferhetepes was buried with Ti. The tomb has vivid reliefs, including a scene depicting a hippo hunt. A SERDAB, agricultural paintings, and a FALSE DOOR add to the tomb’s splendor. A painted limestone statue of Ti, six foot five inches in size, was also recovered.
Tia (1) (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Nineteenth Dynasty
She was the daughter of seti i (r. 1306-1290 b. c.e.) and Queen tuya, and the sister of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.). Tia married an official, also named Tia, the son of a scribe, Amenwhosu, and they had a daughter, Mut-ma’atnefer. The tomb of Tia in MEMPHIS was fashioned out of limestone and contained magnificent reliefs. The site was designed with a porch and a court, two tomb chapels, a shrine, and an exterior pyramid.
Tia (2) (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Nineteenth Dynasty
She was the consort of the usurper amenmesses (r. c. 1214 b. c.e.) and the mother of siptah (r. 1204-1198 b. c.e.). Tia may have been a widowed consort of MERENPTAH (r. 1224-1214 b. c.e.).
“Time of the Gods” This was a romantic Egyptian term used to designate the Predynastic Periods before 3,000 B. C.E. The term also referred to the reigns of certain deities, particularly solar gods and goddesses. These deities were believed to have abandoned their earthly powers to reside in the heavens. The “Time of the Gods” added specific dignity and authority to older traditions or rites, providing them with divine origins. As the various cults evolved over the centuries, the original purposes and customs prevailed because they came into existence in the “Time of the Gods.”
Timotheus (fl. third century b. c.e.) Athenian priest historian who was summoned to Alexandria He was from a priestly family in Athens and was requested by ptolemy i soter (r. 304-284 b. c.e.) to come to ALEXANDRIA to assist in uniting the Egyptian and Greek pantheons of the gods. Timotheus arrived in the new capital and began work with manethon, who was also an adviser. His family had ties to the rites of the Greek gods Demeter and Persephone, and he was also familiar with the shrines and oracles at Eleu-sis and Delphi. Using Timotheus’s advice, Ptolemy I established the cult of serapis, the Egyptian Osiris-Apis, and made the deity the patron of the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
Timsah (Timseh) It was a lake in the eastern Delta of Egypt, adjacent to the site chosen for the modern Suez Canal.
And tried to slay Ramesses III and to overthrow RAMESSES IV, the heir. She enlisted the aid of many court officials and military commanders as she arranged the murders.
The plotters struck while Ramesses III celebrated the first day of the 32nd year of his reign. Discovered and investigated, Tiye and her harem cohorts managed to corrupt the judges and officials studying her case. The matter was finally decided in court. Tiye disappeared immediately afterward and was probably executed. Pentaweret reportedly was allowed to commit suicide.
Titi (fl. 12th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twentieth Dynasty
She was a consort of ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b. c.e.). Titi was buried in the valley of the queens on the western shore of Thebes. Her tomb, cruciform in shape, is small but elaborately decorated.
Tiye (1) (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Powerful royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty
The consort of amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.), Tiye held considerable power during her husband’s reign. She was the daughter of yuya, a commoner priest of akhmin, and Thuya, a servant of Queen mutemwiya. Tiye probably married Amenhotep III when she was 12 years old. intelligent, hardworking, and aware of the needs of the empire, Tiye held administrative posts to assist her somewhat indolent spouse. Her name appeared on official acts and even on the announcement of Amenhotep Ill’s marriage to a foreign princess.
Giving birth to Tuthmosis, the original heir who did not survive long enough to become coregent, and to AKHENATEN, Tiye also had several daughters, baketamun, SITAMUN (2), HENNUTTANEB, Nebtiah, and Iset.
Amenhotep III erected a pleasure complex in MALKATA on the western shore of Thebes, including a palace for Tiye. He then retired to the complex, allowing Tiye to conduct the imperial affairs and to direct royal officials. Tiye was even mentioned by foreign kings in their correspondence. She was widowed at the age of 48 and joined Akhenaten in ’amarna.
Many portraits were made of Tiye, who was depicted as having a high forehead, prominent cheekbones, wide-set, heavy-lidded eyes, and a pouting lower lip. She was buried at Thebes, and a controversy has developed over her tomb and mummified remains.
Tiye (3) (Tyte) (fl. 11th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twentieth Dynasty
She was the consort of ramesses x (r. 1112-1100 b. c.e.) and the mother of ramesses xi and Princess baketwerel II. Also listed as Tyte, she was a daughter of ramesses ix.
Tiye-Mereniset (fl. 12th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twentieth Dynasty
She was the consort of sethnakhte (r. 1196-1194 b. c.e.), the founder of that royal line. Her name meant “Tiye, Beloved of Isis.” She married Sethnakhte before he became the ruler of Egypt, and she was the mother of RAMESSES III.
Tjel It was a site on the border of Egypt, modern Tell Abu Seifa, and one of the frontier outposts. Tjel was heavily fortified and had a series of wells.
See also tcharu; wall of the prince.
Tjemehu A people depicted in ancient Egyptian texts as a blond or red-headed and fair-skinned strain of Libyans, the Tjemehu lived in the western desert and took part in invasions and campaigns during the New Kingdom Period (1550-1070 b. c.e.) and in later historical periods.
Tjet (Djet) He was an unusual deity of Egypt, worshiped in busiris and mendes, the personification of the popular amulet associated with the god OSIRIS and representing that deity’s spinal cord or backbone. Tjet was depicted in the ani papyrus. Figures of the deity were made of gold, crystal, porcelain, or gilded wood. Tjet appeared in the miracle plays conducted by the Osirian cult priests at abydos.
Tiye (2) (fl. 12th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twentieth Dynasty who plotted a royal assassination She was a low-ranked consort of ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b. c.e.) of the Twentieth Dynasty. She plotted his assassination with accomplices and was caught and condemned. Tiye was the mother of Prince pentaweret
Tjueneroy (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Building official of the Nineteenth Dynasty
He served ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) as a director of royal monuments. Tjueneroy conducted his duties in MEMPHIS and in per-ramesses, the new capital of the dynasty. He was the author of a valuable king list.
Tlepolemus (fl. second century b. c.e.) General of the Ptolemaic Period who brought down a palace cabal Tlepolemus was a military official in the reign of ptolemy V Epiphanes (205-180 b. c.e.) who altered the course of history by opposing palace conspirators. He was the governor of Pelusium on Egypt’s eastern frontier when he heard that Queen arsinoe (3), the mother of young Ptolemy V had been murdered. A courtier named agath-OCLES (2) was responsible. SOSIBIUS, an official who was part of the original plot, had served as guardian of Ptolemy V and had retired. Agathocles became the royal guardian in his place, an event that enraged Tlepolemus and started him marching toward ALEXANDRIA with an army.
In the streets of Alexandria, the people witnessed the arrival of Tlepolemus and his forces and joined them at the palace. Agathocles, seeing the mob and Tlepolemus, resigned hastily and fled the scene. The boy ruler was taken to a stadium, and there, Tlepolemus announced the crimes. Ptolemy V agreed to the mob’s demand for Agath-ocles’ blood and the elevation of Tlepolemus to the role of guardian. Agathocles was slain by the angry Alexandrians, and his sister and other family members were also torn to pieces. Tlepolemus took charge of Ptolemy V’s future. He was dismissed from the guardianship a short time later.
Tod This was a site on the eastern banks of the Nile south of Thebes, serving as a cultic center for the god MONTU. SENWOSRET I (r. 1971-1926 b. c.e.) erected a temple to that deity at Tod. Artifacts bearing the seals of AMENEMHET II (r. 1929-1892 b. c.e.) were also discovered on the site, including cylinders and cuneiform inscriptions. The temple was obviously built on the foundation of an earlier shrine, dating to the Old Kingdom Period (2575-2134 b. c.e.). Tod remained an active center even in the Roman Period, after 30 b. c.e.
PTOLEMY VIII EUERGETES II (r. 170-163, 145-116 b. c.e.) added a sacred lake to the temple in his era as well. The temple approach was designed with an avenue of SPHINX figures and a way station for the sacred bark of Montu. TUTHMOSIS III (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) presented the station to the complex. The nearby necropolis of el-MOALLA served Tod.
See also tod treasures.
Tod Treasures They are a collection of silver vessels discovered in the temple of montu at tod, south of Thebes. These date to the reign of amenemhet ii (19291892 b. c.e.) and are of Asiatic design. Secured inside four bronze boxes, the Treasures of Tod include silver cups of Aegean and Levantine design, Babylonian cylinder seals, and lapis amulets. They were objects placed in the foundation of the Montu temple.
Tomb The evolving grave sites and structures erected by the Egyptians for their mortuary rituals and for the internment of their dead, the early tombs of the Egyptians, in both the north and south, were dug out of the soil on the fringes of the deserts. Several such burial sites have been discovered, and one entire setting is now in the British Museum. The bodies were laid in the ground with pottery, personal items, and weapons, following the customs of other primitive peoples throughout the world. In time, however, the funerary offerings and the regalia accompanying the corpses demanded larger receptacles, as the mortuary rituals became more sophisticated. The Egyptians began building mastabas, tombs made out of dried bricks, with shafts and burial chambers dug into the ground. The main level of the mastaba contained a room for ceremonies and then an additional room, a SERDAB, used to position a statue of the deceased so that his spirit could witness the services being offered in his name. The step pyramid at saqqara started the phase of royal pyramids, but these vast complexes, some the size of small cities, were reserved only for royalty and their immediate associates. commoners and the lesser nobles of the land continued to build their tombs at the edge of the desert, although cliff tombs were popular in many nomes. Others built mastabas in the desert, and these were accompanied by cenotaphs, false tombs constructed for religious purposes, to honor a particular god or region. Such cenotaphs were discovered in the necropolis areas of abydos and at gebel el-
SILSILEH.
Temples were used in conjunction with tombs eventually, and it became evident that such sites were vulnerable to robbers. amenhotep i (r. 1525-1504 b. c.e.) decided to use the cliffs in the valley of the kings on the western shore of thebes as his burial site. Others in the dynasty imitated him, and the valley of the queens was also opened for the royal women and princes. The tombs of these individuals were maintained by mortuary priests, contracted and supported by the will of the deceased or by royal decree. The priests performed daily rituals of offerings and prayers at these sites, and entire families continued in service at the tombs as hereditary priests.
Tomb balls clay documents discovered in ancient Egyptian tombs, all marked with the hieroglyph for “contract” or “seal,” these balls are believed to have represented the contracts drawn up on behalf of the deceased and his or her family with the mortuary priests. Such priests were commissioned to continue daily mortuary RITUALS at the tombs. Some of the tomb balls contained bits of papyrus and linen. These balls were probably deposited in the tombs of the deceased by the mortuary priests as symbols of the contracts drawn up for future
, i
. )
The elaborate paintings depicting Ramesses II (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) in his glorified eternal role in the Valley of Kings site. (Courtesy Steve Beikirch.)
Tomb of the Birds This is a burial site located in the causeway of the pyramidal complex of unis (r. 2356-2323 b. c.e.) in saqqara. The mastaba belonged to NEFER-HOREN-PTAH, a Fifth Dynasty official. The Tomb of the Birds contains agricultural scenes and depictions of caged birds in vivid settings.
Tomb of the Warriors It is a burial site at deir el-BAHRI, on the western shore in Thebes, that dates to the reign of montuhotep ii (2061-2010 b. c.e.). The remains of 60 soldiers who died in the service of Montuhotep Il’s reunification campaigns were buried in this rock-cut crypt. The bodies were not mummified but were preserved by elements within their tomb. They were buried close to Montuhotep ii’s royal mortuary complex, a high honor. These soldiers may have performed a service of valor or may have been part of an elite military unit used by Montuhotep ii with success.
Tombos An island at the third cataract of the Nile in NUBIA (modern Sudan). tuthmosis i (r. 1504-1492 b. c.e.) made Tombos the center of his Nubian military campaigns in the second year of his reign. He garrisoned the island, erecting a fortress called “None-Face-Him-Among-The-Nine-Bows-Together.” A stela was also erected to commemorate Tuthmosis i’s victories over the local population and to proclaim his Asiatic campaigns on the Euphrates River. This stela was engraved on a rock in the area.
Tomb Robbery Trial It was a judicial investigation that was conducted in the reign of ramesses ix (11311112 B. C.E.) and reflected the decline of the Egyptian government of that historical period. The actual trial came about as a result of the investigations demanded by PASER (3), the mayor of Thebes, over vandalized tombs. He suffered abuse and harassment as a result of his insistence, especially from Prince pawero, who was the head of the necropolis sites and necropolis police of that era. investigations continued, and eventually the involvement of higher-ranked officials was uncovered, including Prince Pawero, who was indicted and tried for his duplicity and sacrilege. The Abbott papyrus gives some details
A false door in a tomb from the Old Kingdom Period (2575-2134 B. C.E.) that depicts the deceased returning from Tuat, the land beyond the grave. (S. M. Bunson.)
About the investigation and about the tombs searched for desecration and vandalism.
Tomb Texts The various mortuary documents inscribed or painted on the tomb walls in various eras of Egyptian history Some, compiled as the book of the DEAD, were included in the funerary regalia or were reproduced in tomb reliefs. The most popular texts used as burial chamber decorations included
Amduat originally called “the Book of the Hidden Room” or “that which is in the Tuat” (or Underworld). Stick figures, starkly black and stylized, portray the 12 sections on the tomb walls. The Twelve Hours of the Night compose another version of the Amduat. The tomb of TUTHMOSIS III (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) is decorated with the Amduat, also listed as Am Duat or Am Tuat.
Book of Gates the illustrations first used in the tomb of HOREMHAB (r. 1319-1307 b. c.e.) and depicting the twelve parts of the TUAT, or Underworld, complete with fierce guardians, a lake of fire, and the secret caverns of the deity SOKAR.
Book of Caverns a variation on the traditional book OF THE DEAD texts, depicting vast caverns that formed the TUAT, or Underworld.
A papyrus tomb text depicting a deceased couple, Ani and his wife, worshiping Osiris, in a copy of the Book of the Dead. (Hulton Archive.)
Book of the Earth a text that appeared first in the reign of ramesses iii (1194-1163 b. c.e.). Represented in four sections, the mortuary document displayed the rising of RE as the sun of nun, the primordial chaos.
Book of the Heavens a tomb text appearing in the reign of ramesses iv (1163-1156 b. c.e.). The 12 hours of eternal night and the passage of the god re are depicted in this mortuary document.
Litany of Re a text that offers praise to the deity and lists the 75 forms assumed by re as the supreme solar deity and Underworld traveler.
Tomb Workers’ Revolt A small rebellion that took place during the reign of ramesses iii (1196-1163 b. c.e.).
THE SERVANTS OF THE PLACE OF TRUTH, DEIR EL-MEDINA, labored solely for the ruler and were dependent upon rations and goods provided. In Ramesses Ill’s 29th year, these laborers elected a man named Amennakht to represent them in negotiations for better conditions.
The workers had not received rations for more than a month and had suffered as a consequence. They began to assemble at the mortuary temple of tuthmosis iii to register their plight. On the following day they assembled at the RAMESSEUM nearby and complained again. Officials listened but did not provide rations. Violence, punishments, and quarrels developed, continuing the drastic situation. A vizier named Ta’a tried to alleviate the situation but was not successful. The papyrus that records these events ends abruptly without giving a resolution.
Tract of Re A sacred region of Egypt, stretching from HELIOPOLIS to AVARIS, a site in the eastern Delta near modern QANTIR on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. This entire area was the homeland of the Ramessids and once served as a capital setting for the hyksos. Many monuments were erected on this sacred tract.
Trade The economic and artistic exchange system that was used by Egypt and its neighbors from the Predynastic Period (before 3000 b. c.e.) through the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.). Such trade surely dates to the eras before the unification of Egypt, c. 3000 b. c.e., as evidenced by objects discovered in sites from that time. The narmer PALETTE, for example, with its depiction of monsters and entwined long-necked serpents, is distinctly Mesopotamian in design.
Knife handles from the same period demonstrate further Mesopotamian influences, probably brought about by an exchange of trade goods and artistic values. Mesopotamian cylinder seals were found in nagada ii sites. It is possible that trade was not the basis for the appearance of such goods in Egypt; there are some who theorize that such products were brought into Egypt by migrant Mesopotamians entering the Nile Valley.
Early evidence of actual trade missions to Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), no doubt for wood and cedar oil, dates to the reign of ’adjib of the First Dynasty (c. 2700 b. c.e.). Syrian-style pottery has also been found in tombs from this period. Such trade was probably conducted by sea, as the Asiatic bedouins in the sinai made land-based caravans dangerous. Egypt was trading with the Libyans in the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.), probably for olive oil. The rulers also fought to maintain Egypt’s western borders and to subjugate the Libyans, called the Hatiu-a in that period.
NUBIA was an early trading partner. djer (r. c. 2900 b. c.e.), the second king of the First Dynasty, is reported to have taken part in a battle at wadi halfa, where two villages were subdued. kha’sekhemwy, who actually completed the unification of Egypt during his reign (c. 2650 b. c.e.), conducted punitive campaigns there as well, probably to safeguard the trade centers being operated in the region. Ebony and ivory from the Nubian area were items prized by the Egyptians, and they gave the Nubians copper tools, jewelry, and amulets in return. Some local Nubian chiefs appear to have served as trade agents for the Egyptians, no doubt for a percentage of all goods brought to the centers by the outlying natives. These chiefs grew wealthy, as the Nubian gravesites indicate. The Egyptians established a trading settlement at buhen, at the second cataract, in the second Dynasty, probably to provide a center for the caravans arriving from the interior regions.
The adventures of harkhuf in the Sixth Dynasty (c. 2245 b. c.e.) are well documented. He brought back incense, ebony, oils, panther skins, elephant tusks, and a marvelous dancing dwarf, which was the delight of the boy ruler pepi ii (r. 2246-2152 b. c.e.).
In the Middle Kingdom Period, after montuhotep ii had reunited Egypt in 2040 b. c.e., the trading centers began to flourish again. Expeditions were sent to Punt in almost every reign, and a shipbuilding operation center on the Red Sea was begun to facilitate them. Contact had been made with punt as early as the Fifth Dynasty (2465-2323 b. c.e.), as reported by the Palermo stone. In the Middle Kingdom Period the Egyptians had contact with many of the Mediterranean nations, perhaps even Crete, called Kheftiu by the Nile people. Minoan pottery was discovered in Middle Kingdom tombs. In Nubia the major forts were refurbished and new ones erected at critical junctures along the Nile, to facilitate trade and the extraction of natural resources. Egypt conducted trade in the Mediterranean region, and a special relationship was developed with byblos in Phoenicia, where considerable Egyptian influence is obvious.
The New Kingdom Period (1550-1070 b. c.e.) was the period in which the armies of the Nile marched to the Euphrates and to the fifth cataract, just above modern Khartoum, in modern Sudan. The expeditions to Punt are well documented in this era also, especially those sent by
HATSHEPSUT (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.). Egyptians were much taken with luxury goods in this period, and the tributes coming from exotic lands (either vassal or client states or allies) increased their appetite for foreign items.
The Libyans fought against Egypt on several occasions, especially in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties, joined by a roving group of brigands called the SEA PEOPLES, but the region was exploited and trade was continued. The Libyan trade, as well as the trade with other regions, appears to have been officially regulated in this period with tolls and tariffs. The kings sent out expeditions and fleets regularly, and many officials led the commercial ventures, some coming from the bureau established for foreign trade. caravans moved through the Libyan desert area oases, and pack trains were sent into the northern Mediterranean domains.
It is believed that Egypt conducted trade in this era with cyprus, crete, cilicia, Ionia, the Aegean islands, and perhaps even with mainland Greece. Syria remained a popular destination for trading fleets and caravans, where Syrian products were joined with those coming from the regions of the Persian Gulf. The Egyptians received wood, wines, oils, resins, silver, copper, and cattle in exchange for gold (which they had in vaster amounts than any other country), linens, papyrus paper, leather goods, and grains. Money was not in use in Egypt at this time, but a fixed media of exchange was instituted so that trade goods could be valued consistently and fairly. Gold, silver, copper, and even grain were used as bartering values.
During much of the New Kingdom Period, the Egyptians controlled Nubia and maintained the region around the cataracts, conducting mining and quarrying operations. The trade centers flourished, with caravans coming from the south and the interiors. Nubia provided Egypt with ebony, ivory, resins, and exotic wild animals.
Tributes and foreign trade declined after the reign of RAMESSES III (1194-1163 b. c.e.). Expeditions to the mining regions of the sinai ended after ramesses v (r. 1156-1151 b. c.e.), but there was no drastic end to trade when HERIHOR and smendes usurped the throne and power in 1070 b. c.e. Egypt was an established trading partner with the world around it, and that tradition was maintained in good times and bad.
During the Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 b. c.e.), trade appears to have continued in the hands of newly appointed bureaucrats and independent adventurers. Trade was necessary to Egypt’s economy and was a factor of stability as the land splintered into rival city-states. When the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (770-657 b. c.e.) arose out of Nubia, trade with the southern domain flourished, but other Mediterranean trade systems were not abandoned by that or succeeding royal lines.
In the Late Period (712-332 b. c.e.), the rise of GREECE signaled a new dominant trade factor. The city of
NAUKRATIS in the Delta served as the hub of Greek trade for centuries. The Greeks provided silver ore and slaves taken from the northern Aegean area and received Egyptian grain and manufactured artistic wares in return. The Persians interrupted such trade from 525 to 404 b. c.e. and 343 to 332 b. c.e., but the victories of Alexander iii THE GREAT (r. 332-323 b. c.e.) assured that the established trade system flourished until the suicide of cleopatra vii (r. 51-30 b. c.e.), when the Romans declared Egypt a province of special status and regulated such commerce out of ALEXANDRIA.
Travels of an Egyptian (The Tale of Mohor) It is a
Literary text dating to the last periods of the Nineteenth Dynasty (1307-1196 b. c.e.). This text is believed to be an actual journal of a tour, serving as a geographical exercise for students. An official depicts his travels through Syria and Palestine, including assaults and hardships. It has been compared to the Tale of WENAMUN of a later era.
Tree of Heaven A plant that grew in the mythical paradises of the Egyptians. Associated with the cult of HATHOR, the tree was a resting place for the seven HATHORS, who supplied the deceased Egyptians with celestial food beyond the grave.
See also persea tree.
Troja See TUREH.
Tschesertep A serpent demon mentioned in a magical formula in the pyramid texts, the creature was one of the many enemies of the human soul that had to be conquered in order to reach the bliss of paradise beyond the grave. Such serpents were also the enemies of the god re and assaulted him on his journeys through the tuat, or Underworld, each night.
See also APOPHIS.
Tuat (Duat) This was the realm of the dead in Egyptian cultic traditions formed by osiRis’s body as a circular valley Tuat was the destination of the deceased after being judged in the halls of the god Osiris that were in the sixth section of the abode. The soul of the dead had to undertake a journey in order to reach the Tuat, following the example of the god re, who made the same perilous journey each night. The souls of Egyptians waited in the first section of the Tuat for Re to waken them and the souls of foreigners were in the fifth division. The damned and the demons watched Re pass as well, and they wailed when he abandoned them. There were many levels, similar to Dantes’ vision of the underworld.
Osiris was also present in the Tuat and he brought rebirth to the dead. Re sailed through the Tuat and then
To the paradise. The mortuary text used in the tombs describes Osiris as “He Who Is In The Tuat.” The Seven Arits, supernatural beings who could also number as many as 12, guarded the gates. There were also 12 circles that had to be descended by all making the journey. Upon nearing paradise, the dead were bathed in and then absorbed by a radiant light.
Tudhaliyas IV (Tudkhaliash) (d. c. 1220 b. c.e.) King of the Hittites and an ally of Egypt
He was in power during the reign of ramesses ii (1290-1224 B. C.E.). The son of Khatusilis, Tudhaliyas IV ruled from c. 1250 to 1220 b. c.e. Tudhaliyas IV maintained peace with Egypt during his reign, despite occasional clashes over control of vassal city-states. The ASSYRIANS threatened the hittites in the east, and small western states were making raids and incursions upon the region.
Turin Canon This is the finest chronological list of Egyptian rulers, preserved on a papyrus in the Egyptian Museum of Turin. The papyrus is composed of 12 pages, formed as a roll, and the list begins with AHA (Menes) and ends with ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.). Written in the hieratic style, the document was first assessed by Champollion le Jeune. The king of Sardinia owned the Turin papyrus and donated it to the museum. Sent in a crate, the papyrus arrived in crumpled fragments but was reconstructed into the existing document. The 12 pages each contain 26 to 30 names of Egypt’s rulers.
Turin Mining Papyrus This is a document dated to the reign of ramesses iv (1163-1156 b. c.e.) and considered the world’s earliest geological map. Now in Turin, Italy, the Turin Mining Papyrus depicts the wadi hamma-MAT and the Fawakir gold mines in use in that era. Ramesses IV sent expeditions there during his reign.
Tumas It was a site on the Nile located some 150 miles south of ASWAN in nubia (modern Sudan). pepi i (r. 2289-2255 b. c.e.) celebrated a victory over the Nubians at Tumas, probably a battle won by General weni in the ruler’s name. An inscription on the local rocks commemorated the event.
Tuna el-Gebel A site in the desert west of hermopo-LIS (modern el-Ashmunien), serving as the northwest boundary of the capital of AKHENATEN (r. 1353-1335 B. C.E.) at ’amarna, Tuna el-Gebel was a necropolis, sacred to the god THOTH. The site was popular in the later historical periods of Egypt. A stela depicting Akhenaten, Queen nefertiti, and three daughters was discovered at Tuna el-Gebel. Persian papyri from the Second Persian Period (343-332 b. c.e.) were also found, as well as many tombs, containing mummified IBISES and dog-headed baboons. The tomb of PETOSIRIS, serving PHILIP iii arrhidaeus (r. 333-316 B. C.E.) is a treasure on the site. This tomb was built as a temple, with a columned vestibule, pillars, cultic chambers, and elaborate reliefs. An ancient waterworks with a deep shaft and catacombs are also located in Tuna el-Gebel.
Tureh, el - (Tura, Trozia, Troja) A limestone QUARRY that was part of the mokattem Hills in the southern region of modern cairo, Tureh was used for limestone as early as the Old Kingdom Period (2575-2134 b. c.e.). A Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b. c.e.) inscription mentions a sarcophagus fashioned out of Tureh limestone by order of a pharaoh. The Tureh Inscription, dated to the reign of AMENEMHET III (1844-1797 B. C.E.), designates the reopening of the quarry for temple projects. Tureh limestone was prized for its fine quality.
Tushratta (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Last independent ruler of the Mitanni Empire
He was in power in the reign of amenhotep iii (1391-1353 B. C.E.). Tushratta, an ally of Egypt, sent Amenhotep III a statue of the goddess Ishtar in order to heal the pharaoh from an illness. Tushratta also asked for a sign of Amenhotep’s good will, preferring gold, which he wrote was “as plentiful as dust” in Egypt.
Tut’ankhamun (Nebkheprure) (d. 1323 b. c.e.) Twelfth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the most famous pharaoh of Egypt
He reigned from 1333 b. c.e. until his untimely death. The most popular pharaoh in modern times because of the discovery of his tomb, he was probably the son of akhenaten. As the successor of smenkhare, he was only eight or nine at his succession. He was married to ankhesena-MON, the third daughter of nefertiti and Akhenaten, and for a time the young couple remained at ’amarna. Then they moved to MEMPHIS and refurbished the apartments of AMENHOTEP III at THEBES for their use. He had abandoned his ATEN name by his fourth regnal year.
The RESTORATION STELA, which dates to this period, gives an account of Tut’ankhamun’s efforts to stabilize the government and to restore the temples and cultic rites of the old gods of Egypt after the ’Amarna period. He even subsidized new priests and the palace staff from his own pocket. It is believed that aya (2) was one of his counselors at the time, and he probably suggested the reform measures. Tut’ankhamun had been given the name Tut’ankhaten, but assumed his new name as part of the restoration of the old ways. He also moved some of the bodies of the royal family from ’Amarna to Thebes, as evidenced by a cache of royal jewelry apparently stolen during the reburial and then hidden in the royal wadi area.
In his 18th year, Tut’ankhamun died, apparently from a head wound. The nature of the wound, which was in the region of the left ear, makes it likely to be the result of a battle injury or an accident, and not the work of an assassin, although there is a debate about this. When he was buried in the valley of the kings, two mummified fetuses were found in COFFINS sealed with his name. It is believed that they were his children, born prematurely.
After his death, Queen Ankhesenamon made the extraordinary offer of herself and the throne of Egypt to the Hittite king suppiluliumas i. The hittite prince sent to marry Ankhesenamon as a result of her invitation was slain at Egypt’s border. She married Aya and then disappeared.
The wealth of Tut’ankhamun’s mortuary regalia has mesmerized the modern world. It is believed that his canopic coffinettes were originally intended for Smenkhare. Other tomb treasures were taken from the ’Amarna necropolis as well. The tomb of Tut’ankhamun would have been vandalized if the treasurer of horemhab, MAYA, had not intervened to protect it. Maya was able to preserve this resting place, thus offering the modern world spectacular treasures. Tut’ankhamun is also credited with a mortuary temple in the area of medinet habu. He had designed colossal statues of himself for this shrine, but they were usurped by his successors.
Suggested Readings: El Mahdy, Christine. Tutankhamun: The Life and Death of the Boy-King. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000; James, T. G. Henry, Araldo de Luca, and Elis-abetta Ferrero. Tutankhamun. New York: Friedman/Fair-fax, 2000; Reeves, C. N., and Nicholas Reeves. The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995.
Tuthmosis (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Prince of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He was the ranking son and heir of amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.) and Queen tiye (1). Tuthmosis was made the high priest of ptah at Memphis and the supervisor of all priests throughout Egypt. He initiated the rites for the burial of the apis bull in Memphis and then died suddenly before he could inherit the throne. Amenhotep IV (akhenaten) became the heir. Tuthmosis fashioned a unique sarcophagus for his cat. He was depicted in a relief of the historical period and remained popular, as the Apis rituals continued for centuries.
Tuthmosis I (Akheperkare) (d. 1492 b. c.e.) Third ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the founder of the Egyptian Empire
He reigned from 1504 b. c.e. until his death. Not the heir to the throne of Amenhotep I, Tuthmosis I was probably a prince of a collateral line or an heir of the Theban nome aristocracy. His mother, senisonbe, is identified only as “King’s Mother,” but she reportedly had political power of her own.
Tuthmosis I married ’ahmose (1), a possible sister of Amenhotep I, and was named heir when the king died childless. ’Ahmose bore Tuthmosis two daughters, NEFERUKHEB and HATSHEPSUT, and two sons, WADJMOSE and AMENMOSE. These two sons were militarily active but predeceased their father. tuthmosis ii, born to mut-NOFRET (1), a lesser-ranked royal woman and perhaps a nome heiress, became the heir.
Assuming the throne, Tuthmosis I began many building projects, including the extension of the great temple of AMUN at KARNAK. Aided by ineni, the famed architect of the era, Tuthmosis I added pylons, courts, and statues to the shrine, setting the standard for the eventual magnificence of the temple. He also led a military campaign into NUBIA (modern Sudan) in his second regnal year, fighting the local warrior clans and penetrating beyond the second cataract. some records indicate that Tuthmosis battled the chief of the Nubians there. A hand-to-hand combat cost the Nubian his life and his territory. Tuthmo-sis returned to Thebes with the body of the chief hanging from the prow of his ship. After defeating the local inhabitants, Tuthmosis started a new series of fortresses on the Nile and named a new viceroy of Nubia to handle the affairs below the cataracts. He also cleared the ancient canals at the various cataracts.
His greatest military exploits, however, were conducted in the lands beyond the eastern borders of Egypt. Like others of his line, he smarted over the recent domination of the HYKSOS, or Asiatics, in the Delta region of Egypt. He felt that the Egyptians needed to avenge themselves for the shame and led an army against several Asiatic territories in order to subdue tribes and to create buffer states and vassals. Tuthmosis I managed to reach the Euphrates River near carchemish in modern Syria, erecting a stela there to commemorate his victory. His exploits allowed him to boast that he had enlarged the boundaries of Egypt to match the circuit of the sun. He made the Euphrates Egypt’s new border. Tuthmosis I also fought the MITANNI chariot corps.
At Karnak, to commemorate his victories and to bolster his popularity, he had a hypostyle hall built entirely of cedarwood columns and added a copper and gold door, OBELISKS, and flagstaffs tipped with elec-TRUM. The tomb of Tuthmosis I was also begun early in his reign. Ineni supervised the preparation in secret, placing it high in the cliffs overlooking the western shore of Thebes. The ruler’s mortuary temple, quite magnificent in design, was located near medinet habu. Tuthmosis I was so popular that his mortuary cult continued into the Nineteenth Dynasty (1307-1196 b. c.e.). He brought Egypt renewed vigor and a sense of continuity and stability Above all, his military campaigns healed the wounds of the Thebans and set the pattern of empire.
The mummified remains identified as those of Tuthmosis I were found with a cache of bodies in deir el-BAHRI, reburied there when later dynasties discovered the original royal tombs had been vandalized. The corpse of the ruler was bald, showing signs of arthritis and poor teeth. Tuthmosis I had a narrow face and an arched nose. There have been questions as to the true identity of the corpse over the years, with some scholars holding the opinion that it is not Tuthmosis I because of the apparent age discrepancies.
Tuthmosis II (Akhepernere) (d. 1479 b. c.e.) Fourth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He reigned from 1492 b. c.e. until his death. The son of TUTHMOSIS I and mutnofret (1), a lesser-ranked wife and possibly a sister of Queen ’ahmose, the wife of tuthmosis I, Tuthmosis II was not ambitious or entirely healthy. There has been considerable doubt about the military capacities of this heir to the throne. Frail and sickly, he was overshadowed by hatshepsut, his queen, throughout his reign. However, it is recorded that he conducted at least one campaign against the Asiatics. One fragmented document states that he even entered Syria with his army and conducted another campaign in nubia. This campaign, however, is recorded in another place as having been accomplished by others in his name. He is supposed to have come to the area to view the trophies of victory. There he also began to take Nubian princes to be raised as Egyptians.
Tuthmosis II added to the karnak shrine but left no other monuments to his reign except a funerary chapel. He had a daughter, neferu-re, the offspring of Hatshepsut, and a son, tuthmosis iii, from a harem woman named iset (1). This son was declared his heir before Tuthmosis II died at the age of 29 or 30.
His mummified remains give evidence of a systemic illness, possibly from tooth decay, an affliction quite common in that period. He was heavyset, without the characteristic Tuthmossid muscular build, but his facial features resembled those of his warrior father. No tomb has been discovered, but his mummy was found in the cache of royal remains at deir el bahri.
Tuthmosis III (Menkheperre) (d. 1425 b. c.e.) Fifth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty, called “the Napoleon of
Egypt”
He reigned from 1479 b. c.e. until his death. He was the son of TUTHMOSIS II and iset (1), a harem woman, and was named heir before Tuthmosis Il’s death. On later monuments he inscribed an almost miraculous account of that event. The god amun was supposed to have forced the bearers of his sacred ark to kneel during a festival celebration. The ark was saluting a novice of the temple, prince Tuthmosis, serving a type of novitiate in a separate cult reserved for the princes of Egypt. Amun and the bearers of the sacred ark prostrated themselves in front of the prince, and Tuthmosis III rose up as the heir to the throne.
He was, however, too young to rule at the time of his father’s death and hatshepsut, Tuthmosis’s queen, was named regent. She allowed Tuthmosis’s coronation and perhaps married him to her daughter, neferu-re. Two years later, however, with the help of her courtiers and the priests of Amun, led by hapuseneb and senenmut, she took the throne in her own name, adopting masculine attire, and became queen-pharaoh. Tuthmosis III was allowed to wear the robes and crowns of a king, but he was relegated to the background. That situation continued until c. 1469 b. c.e., when Neferu-Re and Senenmut died, leaving Hatshepsut vulnerable. She died or was otherwise removed from power and Tuthmosis came to full powers.
He had conducted some military campaigns during Hatshepsut’s reign, and he had spent a great deal of time preparing the land and naval forces of Egypt for his own expeditions. Tuthmosis III began his true reign by attacking the king of kadesh, a northern Mediterranean region, and his allies. Territories throughout western Asia were in revolt, and Tuthmosis III had to combat them in order to reestablish Egyptian suzerainty. He led his own regiments, sending ships to the palestinian coast to meet him, and faced the army at the fortress of Ar-MEGIDDO, Armageddon. The Asiatics expected that he would attack them directly, but Tuthmosis turned direction at Aruna and took his troops single file over Mount Carmel, surprising the enemy from behind. The Egyptian cavalry, much feared in this era, sent the panic-stricken Asiatics fleeing into Ar-Megiddo.
Tuthmosis III laid siege to the fort as a result, building a wall around the outer defenses. He left a token force there while he raided the lands of the neighboring rulers and chieftains. The campaign lasted only a few weeks, and on his return to Thebes, Tuthmosis III stopped with his troops to harvest the crops of the Asiatics. Egypt was flooded with treasure, tribute, and dignitaries from every land and city-state in the region as a result of its newly gained imperial status.
Tuthmosis III regulated the internal affairs in the nation as well, setting the standards for viziers and court officials and using their talents to launch building projects, although after a decade, many of his agents set about destroying the monuments of Hatshepsut and her cohorts in an effort to erase her memory. The demolition of the woman ruler’s monuments and the construction boom were related to Egypt’s new economic prosperity.
Tuthmosis III was one of Egypt’s greatest generals. He conquered lands from the fifth cataract of the Nile to the Euphrates River, where he raised a stela, and kept his empire securely under Egyptian control. He was possibly married to Neferu-Re, who died young, and then to SITIAH, a short-lived queen. meryt-re-hatshepsut became the Great Wife, and they had a son, amenhotep
4i6 Tuthmosis III's Hymn of Victory
II, and several daughters. Tuthmosis III also had other wives, including Queen nebetu’u (2), as well as some from other kingdoms sent as tribute or as symbols of vassalage.
He died in the 55th year of his reign and was buried in a tomb in the valley of the kings. This tomb was decorated with the cultic stick-like renditions of the AM DUAT, the New Kingdom version of the book of the DEAD. His mummified remains, damaged from vandalism and later reburied in deir el-bahri, give evidence of his havin
World History
