A highly significant cache of about 35,000 mokkan was discovered in August 1988, when the foundations for a new department store were being excavated. This was located in the aristocratic center of Nara city, just southeast of the royal palace precinct. Someone seems to have dumped them by the eastern gate to a large and opulent private residence. They cover the activities of the household of a royal prince named Nagaya (684-729 C. E.) and his wife, Princess Kibi, during the years 711-716 c. e. He was a grandson of Emperor temmu (631?-86 c. e.) and a high minister in the court of Emperor Shomu (r. 742-749 C. E.) and thus entitled to a household maintained at state expense. His principal wife, Kibi, was a granddaughter of Emperor Temmu but by a different son than her husband and a sister of Emperor Mommu. She was of higher rank than her husband. The records should be read in conjunction with the excavation of his compound, which incorporated at least 30 buildings. This household was sustained by dedicated tax payments from more than 200 ascribed rural estates, where peasant and slave workers produced the rice and other goods required. The prince also owned timber and salt-making enterprises. Some of his land appears to have been inherited, but other estates were probably ascribed him by the state because of his rank. We learn that he maintained at the capital specialists in the production of leather goods, bronze castings, dyers, cooks, makers of arms and musical instruments, and sculptors. There were also grooms, falconers, and dog handlers.
More than 70,000 mokkan dating to 732-739 c. e. have been found in a second aristocratic household at Nara, this one probably belonging to Fujiwara no Maro. He was a minister of war, and his records include the provision of many services, from guards for the royal palace to rats to feed his falcons.
A small number of mokkan were used for practicing calligraphy and even for drafting images. One of the latter, dated to 738 C. E., is the earliest-known Japanese landscape. It shows a compound incorporating three walls, a lily pond, and elegant halls in front of a rugged mountain from which a waterfall tumbles. Another painting shows a horse and would have been presented to a shrine. It had been painted and gilded.
The deep insight into the administrative minutiae of the late Yamato and Nara periods of Japanese history has already greatly enlarged the understanding of this period, but it is stressed that many more such records are likely to be found and their analysis is in its infancy.
Further reading: Brown, D. M. The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993; Kiyotari, T., ed. Recent Archaeological Discoveries in Japan. Tokyo: The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1987; Totman, C. A History of Japan. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Money tree A money tree is a distinctive type of mortuary offering that was particularly prevalent in the Chinese province of Sichuan during the HAN dynasty (206 B. C.E.-220 C. E.). The ritual pits of sanxingdui have revealed several examples of bronze trees dating to the second half of the second millennium b. c.e. The most complete had three sets of branches embellished with birds and fruit and holes for the suspension of precious items of jade, gold, and bronze. The top of this tree was designed to receive a further bronze casting that might well have been one of the bronze birds found in the same pits.
These money trees are not in fact related to money per se, but rather are symbols of the ascent to heaven. A similar iconography is seen in the contemporary tomb banners of mawangdui, where a crow is perched in a tree in heaven.
This tree, of ritual and symbolic importance, is probably the predecessor of a mortuary offering that continued in favor for more than a millennium among the SHU people of Sichuan. The Han examples stand between 1.0 and 1.8 meters (3.3 and 5.9 ft.) tall and include a ceramic base, a long bronze tree trunk, and attached branches. A rose finch or golden crow, symbols of the Sun, perched on the top of the trunk. Each branch was cast integrally with Han coins, but the coins were embellished with rays and thus represent the Sun. Other celestial images include the queen mother of the west and mythical beasts, such as the toad and the hare. The toad is relevant because after the legendary chieftain Hou Yi obtained the elixir of immortality from xiwangmu, the queen mother, it was stolen by his wife, who fled to the Moon. There she was turned into a toad. The hare is seen on the trees with a pestle, pounding the herb that conferred immortality in his mortar.
Mongchon Mongchon was a city of the paekche state, one of the states existing in the period of three kingdoms in Korea. It is located in the area of Seoul near a tributary of the Han River. The site is demarcated by a moat and walls of stamped earth, following the Chinese model. The walls rise to a height of 17 meters (56.1 ft.) and incorporate high watchtowers. Paekche was under threat from the rival kingdom of KOGURYO, and excavations in 1987 uncovered much evidence for warfare in the form of bone-plate armor, horse equipment, such as stirrups and bits, and weaponry. The bone plates had been drilled for joining with other pieces and many well have been used to protect horses from injury in battle. There was also a domestic element to the site, revealed by the presence of storage pits, possible pit houses, and roof tiles. The imported Chinese pottery dates to the third and fourth centuries C. E., confirming occupation before the conquest of the area and the relocation of the Paekche capital to the south that occurred in 475 c. E.
Mouhot, Henri (1826-1861) Henri Mouhot is often credited as the first Westerner to “discover” Angkor in Cambodia.
In fact, his posthumously published journals contained early engravings of Angkor, which revealed the size and majesty of the temples to a wide western audience. Many westerners had visited and described Angkor before Mouhot’s visit, however, beginning with Portuguese missionaries in the second half of the 16th century. For three years from 1858, Mouhot traveled extensively in Southeast Asia, following his interest in biology. His observant eye and drafting skill are seen in his plan of Angkor and engravings of the principal monuments, some of which were published with his journals in 1864.
Mount Meru Hindu sacred texts describe Mount Meru as the center of the universe. It was ringed by a series of concentric circles. The first is known as jambudvipa, the land of the rose apple tree, beyond which lies the saltwater ocean, and so through various realms until outer darkness. There are also seven layers below the surface, under which lie the realms of hell. The cosmos is inhabited by many kinds of beings, including celestial nymphs, the APSARAS, and snakes, the nagas. The temple mausolea of the kings of angkor in Cambodia were built to represent the sacred mountain. Ta Keo, the mausoleum built for JAYAVARMAN V (r. 968-1001 C. E.), was known as Hemasringagiri, Mountain with the Golden Summits. The BAPHUON, mausoleum of udayadityavarman ii (r. 1050-66 C. E.), was described as an imitation of Mount Meru in an inscription from Lonvek. A later inscription from Ban That describes how suryavarman ii (r. 1113-50 C. E.) built three stone towers like the summits of Mount Meru with surrounding walls, a series of shrines, and great BARAYS, or reservoirs, surrounded by groves of flowering plants, populated by celestial beings and holy men. This temple was said to resemble the paradise of indra.
Mount Tai Mount Tai is a mountain that was sacred to the Chinese over many centuries. It is located in Shandong province. Ascent of the mountain to conduct religious rituals by an emperor was rare. it is, however, recorded that in 219 B. C.E., an ascent was made by qin SHIHUANGDI, and an inscription was set up to proclaim his sovereignty over a united empire. The mountain achieved particular prominence under Emperor WUDI of the Western HAN dynasty, who conducted ceremonials on the summit in 110 b. c.e. This was a period of Chinese imperial expansion and projection of national unity and pride, but the principal motivation to ascend the mountain followed the discovery of an ancient tripod said to have been associated with the yellow manifestation of DI. Since the physical manifestation of the yellow DI, the yellow emperor Huangdi, had achieved immortality, Wudi was persuaded that by participating in ancient ceremonials at Mount Tai, he too could fulfill his desire to become immortal.
Mratan The inscriptions dating to the chenla kingdoms in Cambodia (550-800 C. E.) refer to certain men by
The huge stone pyramid of Ta Keo at Angkor was built as the temple mausoleum of King Jayavarman V ( r. 968-1001 C. E.). It was struck by lightning, an evil omen, and never completed. (Charles Higham)
The title mratan. Unlike the contemporary title of PON for highly ranked men, this title seems to have been accorded to individuals irrespective of their ancestry It thus provides evidence that kings could recognize their followers with distinguished titles, a feature that continued in a greatly magnified form during the ensuing kingdom of ANGKOR.
Mrauk-U Mrauk-U is one of the major royal capitals of the ARAKAN (Rakhine) region of western Myanmar (Burma). Its present form dates from the 15 th century, and its multitude of temples, monasteries, and parks and the royal palace made it at the time one of the great centers of Southeast Asia. A number of finds reveal settlement that was contemporary with the occupation of the capital city of vesali, 10 kilometers (6 mi.) to the north. These include two decorated stone lintels bearing makaras, “monsters,” disgorging garlands. Such motifs are matched in the lintels of early seventh-century date from ISANAPURA in Cambodia. The Nibuza temple at Mrauk-U has also yielded part of a lintel decorated with the sun god Surya, which has been dated to the eighth century on stylistic grounds.
Muang Dongkorn The city site of Muang Dongkorn in central Thailand was occupied during the period of the DVARAVATI CIVILIZATION (c. 400-c. 900 C. E.). Never excavated, it reveals surface remains of brick temple foundations inside and outside the large moated enclosure. It is also well known for the number of Dvaravati coins found, including those with the conch shell, rising Sun, cow with calf, and mother goddess, or srivatsa, motifs. Six coins bear a text describing the king of Dvaravati, and one mentions a royal consort. There are also a stone ritual tray fragment from this site, a relief image of Buddha, and bivalve stone molds for casting earrings and finger rings of bronze.
Muang Fa Daet Muang Fa Daet is a large settlement located north of the Chi River in northeast Thailand. It has three moated enclosures with a fourth feature thought to have been a reservoir to the northeast. The reservoir covers an area of 15 hectares (37.5 acres), while the settlement proper appears to have been enlarged on three occasions, ultimately to cover 171 hectares (427.5 acres). Its location commands traffic up and down the Chi Valley and north via the Pao River Valley to the Sakon Nakhon Basin. A mound in the northwestern corner of the site was occupied during the Iron Age (500 B. C.E.-200 C. E.) and has yielded inhumation graves associated with red painted pottery vessels. Erik Seidenfaden (1954) reported the presence there of many Buddhist sacred boundary marker (sema) stones. The location of the actual precincts is now lost as a result of the relocation of the stones to the principal modern village in the ancient site. They still provide much information because they are carved to depict Buddhist scenes. One shows the Buddha in association with Indra and Brahma. A second shows Buddha with his wife and son after his enlightenment, seated in front of a sala, or wooden hall, which provides a glimpse of the nature of secular architecture at that period. A wall and gateway defended by soldiers at the base of this sema stone give an idea of the former defenses. This site provides evidence for the development of small states in northeast Thailand in 500-800 C. E.
See also dvaravati civilization.
Muang Phra Rot The moated dvaravati civilization center of Muang Phra Rot, in the Bang Pakong Valley east of the CHAO PHRAYA RIVER in Thailand, encloses an area of 1,350 by 700 meters (4,455 by 2,310 ft.). It is interesting to note that a stone mold for casting tin amulets, identical to those from OC EO, has been found there, indicating occupation in the early centuries C. E. Statuary representing the Buddha as well as Brahma and indra has also been found, and excavations have yielded an occupation layer of Dvara-vati-style pottery dated from the sixth to the 11th century C. E. This site was included in an area subjected to an intensive survey for archaeological remains in 1984. The pottery found on the surface was matched at several small, unmoated settlements in the surveyed area. This suggests that the moated city was contemporary with dependent agricultural villages in its hinterland. Furthermore, the presence of marine shells at Muang Phra Rot suggests that it was located much closer to the sea than it is at present (c. 26 kilometers; 15.6 mi.) and could have been a port city
Muang Sema Located just north of the modern city of Nakhon Ratchasima in northeast Thailand, Muang Sema is a large historic town covering an area of 1,845 by 755 meters. It has two walled enclosures and a moat. Excavations have revealed deep prehistoric layers with inhumation graves dating to the region’s Iron Age (500 B. C.E.-200 C. E.). This was followed by two periods of occupation. The earlier held ceramics similar to those of the dvaravati civilization sites of the central plain of Thailand; the later saw strong Angkorian influence in material culture. During the period of Dvaravati dominance, there is abundant evidence for the practice of buddhism, indicated by the presence of statues, a “wheel of the law” (dharmacakra), and a large representation of a reclining Buddha. The central part of the site incorporates the Bor E-ka temple sanctuary from which a SANSKRIT and Khmer inscription, dated stylistically to the ninth century C. E., records the meritorious gift of water buffaloes, cattle, and slaves by the overlord of a polity named as Sri Canasa. This polity is also recorded in an INSCRIPTION from Ayutthaya that names a king, Man-galavarman, as the ruler. It is considered likely that Muang Sema was the capital center of the small, independent state in the upper Mun Valley contemporary with late chenla and early ANGKOR.
Muang Tam This temple complex lies about eight kilometers south of the hilltop sanctuary of phnom rung in the Mun Valley of northeast Thailand. It dates to the 11th century on stylistic grounds and was dedicated to SIVA. No INSCRIPTIONS survive, and little is known of the site’s history It is notable for the five central brick towers built in imitation of mount meru, home of the gods, and the four sacred pools. Naga, or snakes, are found in profusion. Outside the precinct lies a very large BARAY, or reservoir, more than a kilometer long and 400 meters wide. Elizabeth Moore and Smitthi Siribhadra have also noted that Muang Tam and Phnom Rung lie in an area crossed by canals, one of which is more than 20 kilometers long. They suggest that the canals assisted drainage and the carrying of water to rice fields in times of unseasonable draught.
Mundigak Mundigak is a settlement site in the Kushk-i Nakhod Valley of central Afghanistan. Its importance lies in its documentation of cultural elaboration in the uplands to the west of the Indus Valley between the early fourth and the second millennia b. c.e. It was during this period that the INDUS valley civilization arose, and the impact of new and extensive exchange relationships in, for example, turquoise beads, can be seen in the sequence at Mundigak. Thus, during the early occupation of Period I, there was an initial absence of any permanent structures, implying occasional visits to the site, but this was in due course succeeded by the construction of buildings of unfired clay brick, associated with bread ovens. Wells were excavated for the domestic water supply. During the second phase, it is possible to trace the first presence of stone seals, the development of copper and bronze technology, and a proliferation of human and animal terra-cotta figurines. By this juncture, in tandem with urbanization in the Indus Valley, Mundigak was expanding in size and complexity with the construction of a massive defensive wall, and a palace building and temple were found within.
Mure Miyayama Muro Miyayama is a massive kofun, or burial mound, located on a ridge overlooking the yam-ATO Plain in Japan. It has a typical keyhole form, comprising linked circular and rectangular mounds. The former has a diameter of 105 meters; the latter measures 110 by 110 meters. The total length is 285 meters. The mortuary rituals of this period involved the placement of ceramic figures, known as HANIWA, around the tombs, and at Muro Miyayama these took the form of house models, shields, and armor.
The soil used to raise these mounds to a height of 25 meters has left a form of moat around the complex, which on typological grounds of form and associated artifacts dates to the early fifth century C. E. It is thought that there were formerly three major tombs in the main mound, but two had been so badly looted that little remained. The third, although entered and robbed, was still in part intact. It had a stone chamber 5.5 by 1.9 meters in extent, surrounding a grave of stone walls and ceiling. The burial offerings included iron swords, armor, and bronze mirrors, together with hundred of talc beads.
Muryeng, King (r. 501-523) King Muryong was the 25th king of the Korean state of Paekche.
The recovery of nearly 5,000 objects of gold from the tomb of the king and his consort serves to emphasize the wealth of the Paekche kingdom and the splendor that has been lost to looting. It was a miracle that this great burial, discovered in 1971, has survived intact to reveal to generations of Koreans the splendor of their cultural heritage.
When Muryong was only 14, the rival army of KOGURYO defeated the forces of Paekche at Seoul, and the king was executed. With other members of the royal family, Prince Sama, as Muryong was then known, fled to the safety of Kongju in the south. The SAMGUK SAGl, a vital source of information on early Korea written in the 12th century c. E. from earlier documents that have not survived, described King Muryong as a prominent ruler whose posthumous name, Muryong, means “brave and peaceful.” However, the earlier years of his reign were marked by the provision of a defensive line punctuated by forts as a measure against further Koguryo attack and the cementing of an alliance with the southern Chinese dynasty of Liang. He is also known for devoting much effort to the improvement of agriculture.
THE ROYAL TOMB
In 1971, a fortuitous discovery of a brick faqade behind a looted tomb at Kongju, about 90 kilometers south of Seoul, resulted in the recognition of the intact tomb of Muryong. In accordance with the strong Chinese influence that characterized his reign, the tomb was cut into a hillside linked to the outside by a passageway that incorporated a drain about 17 meters long. The bricks, another element of Chinese inspiration, are finely molded with lotus designs and line the main chamber. Wall niches still contained the porcelain lamps and wicks that had illuminated the burial chamber. Two diorite inscriptions faced the entrance passageway, one for the king, the other for his consort. They describe the purchase of the land from the Earth god by means of a payment of 10,000 coins. The text of this inscription reads: “The great general and pacifier of the East, King Muryong of Paekche, died at the age of 62 on 5 June 523. On 14 September 525 he was interred in a great tomb with due ceremony. We have recorded that the plot was purchased from the Earth god.” The Chinese wushu coins used in the purchase were still present on top of the stela. The entrance also included a tomb guardian in the form of a stone animal statue standing to a height of 40 centimeters.
World History
