The period of Parthian control at Dura Europos has produced evidence for the presence of a community of Palmyrenes at the city.70 Much of the
Figure 4.10 Camel lamp - a symbol of the importance of trade to Dura Europos found at the site in the excavations of 1931-1932. From M. I. Ros-tovtzeff, ed., The Excavations at Dura Europos: Freliminary Report of the Fifth Season, 1931-1932, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934, plate XXI, 1.
Evidence is religious in nature, comprising dedications and temples to Palmyrene gods. The Yale University excavations in the 1930s uncovered the remains of a small temple outside the city walls, approximately 350 metres west of the desert wall in what became the necropolis during the Roman period.71 The temple was dedicated by members of two Palmyrene tribes in 33/32BC, and it is the earliest evidence for a Palmyrene presence at Dura.72 This temple underwent a number of enlargements and renovations in the Parthian period. These included a new altar in the middle of the first century AD and an enlargement c. 100.73 In the early years of Roman control, a completely new temple was constructed and joined to the old temple, effectively doubling its size.74 It is proposed that this temple was used exclusively by Palmyrenes from its earliest construction phase in 33/32bc up to its enlargement c. 173 as the individual who was responsible for the enlargement claimed that his ancestor was one of the temple’s founders.75 The temple’s location outside the walls of Dura indicates that it was designed for use by Palmyrene traders who camped outside the city, and its long association with at least one of its founders may indicate the presence of a Palmyrene trading dynasty at Dura.76
The evidence for the earliest presence of a Palmyrene temple within the city walls at Dura is the subject of some debate. The Temple of the Gadde, as it was termed by the original excavators, was dedicated to the Palmyrene god Malakbel and also the gadde (Tychae) of both Dura and Palmyra.77 In this form its construction dates to 159 on the basis of the inscriptions naming the two gadde.78 The temple had three earlier forms, all in the Parthian period, with the earliest probably dating to a similar time to the construction of the original necropolis temple.79 There is no direct evidence to indicate that the earlier phases of the temple were dedicated to Palmyrene gods, and in its earliest phase the ‘temple’ is thought to have been a house.80 It is possible, however, to show that in its later phases the building had an ongoing purpose as a Palmyrene temple. The discovery of hundreds of plaster fragments used from the third phase of the temple were used in the floor of the final construction phase and these have been reconstructed to show some fragmentary dipinti. The dipinti were in Palmyrene script and were mostly Palmyrene names, indicating that the temple was probably used by Palmyrenes in its third phase.81 The original excavator of the temple, F. E. Brown, concluded:
[I]ts combined function of sanctuary and meeting place, suggested in the arrangements of Period II, becomes clear in Period III, and determines the final rebuilding of Period IV. This evolution is unbroken and reflects the needs of a group whose character remained unchanged and whose growth was ever expressed in more ambitious schemes of building.82
Figure 4.11 Relief sculptures of the Gad of Dura and the Gad of Palmyra. The Gad of Dura is a male, which is rare, and appears to be in the guise of Zeus Olympios, the founding deity of the Seleucid dynasty. From M. I. Rostovtzeff, A. Bellinger, C. Hopkins and C. B. Welles, eds, The Excavations at Dura Europos: Preliminary Report of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons: 1933-1934 and 1934—1935, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1936, plates XXXIII and XXXIV.
Perhaps the most prominent evidence for the Palmyrene presence at Dura Europos comes from the Temple of Bel, also called the Temple of the Palmyrene Gods. The discovery of paintings in this temple in 1920 led to the original archaeological interest in the site. The impressiveness of these paintings and the extraordinary story of their discovery has contributed to the notion of the general importance of the Palmyrene population at Dura. The paintings are thought to date to c. ad 75 and are claimed to be of local Durenes.83 The earliest inscription from the temple is a dedication in Greek to Zeus Soter dating to ad50/51.84 There is no clear proof that Palmyrenes belonged to the clientele of the temple until just before the Roman period.85 Distinct from the Temple of the Gadde, it is clear that the area enclosed by the temple was a sacred precinct from at least the middle of the first century AD, but we cannot be certain that it was specifically a Palmyrene precinct until the last years of Parthian control of the city.
The earliest evidence for a Palmyrene presence within the city of Dura Europos is a bilingual Greek and Palmyrene inscription from the Temple of Zeus Kyrios/Baalshamin dated ad31.86 The inscription dedicated an image of Zeus Kyrios in Greek and Baalshamin in Palmyrene.87 The dedication of the building is dated to c. ad28 on the basis of an altar inscription in Greek.88 While the building was identified by the Yale excavation team as a Temple of Zeus Kyrios/Baalshamin on the basis of the relief sculpture, it has recently been pointed out that a larger niche, perhaps for the temple’s main cult figure, existed underneath the considerably smaller niche containing the relief of Zeus Kyrios/Baalshamin.89 The original identification of the Temple of Zeus Kyrios/Baalshamin, therefore, may be incorrect. Significantly, however, this cult relief demonstrates that in some
Figure 4.12 The Temple of the Palmyrene Gods in the north-west corner of Dura Europos. Accidental discoveries of paintings in this temple in the 1920s indicated the potential importance of the site.
Temples at Dura in the Parthian period, Semitic and Greek gods were honoured in the same temples.
The epigraphic evidence for the presence of Palmyrenes at Dura Europos has so far returned 56 inscriptions of which seven are datable.90 Many are graffiti of no more than a few words. Most of them are names, some are altar dedications and others are from banquet frescoes. The datable ones are more significant inscriptions dedicating temples or cult reliefs. Four date to the period of Parthian control of the city, while three date to the Roman period. The four from the Parthian period are those dedicating the Temple of Bel in the necropolis, the relief of Zeus Kyrios/Baalshamin and the dedications to the Gadde of Dura and Palmyra in the Temple of the Gadde.
The importance of Dura Europos to Palmyra’s growing trading success is difficult to establish, but there is little doubt that Palmyra was important to Dura’s prosperity.91 The general conclusion of the archaeologists is that Dura was involved in the caravan trade from Palmyra and was a halting place for the caravans on their way to the Persian Gulf.92 The archaeologists also conclude that because some of the Palmyrene material from Dura is military in nature, Palmyrene archers were stationed at the city for the protection of the caravans.93 This position is in contrast with the opinions of those who have expertise in the study of Palmyra. They conclude that Dura was not involved in the caravan trade and that there was only local trade between the two cities.94 In their opinion, the Palmyrene archers at Dura were serving with the Roman army after the Romans took control of the city and had nothing to do with protecting the caravans.95 Dirven argues that the trade between Dura Europos and Palmyra was probably a combination of both caravan and local trade. She points out that Dura is situated on the shortest route between Palmyra and the Euphrates, making it an ideal halting place for the cara-vans.96 She also notes Gawlikowski’s suggestion that the Palmyrenes used boats to transport goods as this was more profitable and faster.97 Dirven draws attention to the potential importance of Dura as a halting place for the caravans on their way to the Persian Gulf. The downstream journey would have begun from the shortest point at which the caravans travelled across the desert from Palmyra, and that was in the vicinity of Dura Europos.98 When the caravans made their way from the Persian Gulf it is thought that they were only able to navigate the Euphrates as far as Hit before disembarking and following the desert track from Hit to Palmyra.99 This was a journey of approximately 500km, and the track that the Palmyrenes appear to have used was identified by Mouterde and Poidebard.100 Further to these observations, the importance of Dura Europos to local trade with Palmyra was the probable provision of agricultural products grown on the fertile banks of the Euphrates and Khabur
Rivers.101
Figure 4.13 The fertile banks of the Euphrates at Dura Europos.
The Palmyrene presence at Dura Europos in the Parthian period is indicative of how the city was more influenced by regional factors than Parthian control of the city, which appears to have been more at a distance; the city’s governance left to its own devices and institutions. It has already been shown in Chapter 2 that Rome’s increased power and influence at Palmyra from the first century AD to the middle of the second century was expressed more in commercial terms. If Palmyrene archers were present at Dura during the Parthian period for the purpose of protecting trade it does not seem to have presented a problem, despite Palmyra’s closeness to Rome. This supports the argument that the nature of Roman control or influence over Palmyra up to the early third century AD was still not clearly defined in provincial terms.
World History
