Arabic name of the site that served as the capital, Akhetaten, “The Horizon of aten,” it was built by akhen-ATEN (Amenhotep IV of the Eighteenth Dynasty, r. 1353-1335 B. C.E.) as his capital and destroyed by HOREMHAB a few decades later. Erected on a level plain between the Nile and the eastern cliffs north of Assiut, ’Amarna was six miles long and marked by boundary stelae. The districts of the city were well planned and laid out with geometric precision and artistry. All of the regions of ’Amarna were designed to focus on the royal residence and on the temple of the god Aten.
24 'Amarna Letters
Officials and courtiers lived in the principal districts, and the homes provided for them were large and lavish. Most contained gardens, pools, and summer villas, as well as reception areas. The temple and the palace were located on the royal avenue, designed to run parallel to the Nile. This thoroughfare was spanned by an immense brick bridge, which was not only a startling architectural innovation but achieved an artistic unity that became the hallmark of the god’s abode. The bridge joined two separate wings of the royal residence and contained the famed WINDOW OF APPEARANCE, which was discovered in reliefs of the area. Akhenaten and nefertiti greeted the faithful of the city in the window and honored officials, military leaders, and artisans, forming an appealing portrait of regal splendor in this setting.
The palace did not serve as a royal residence but as a site for rituals and ceremonies. The royal family occupied limited space in separate apartments. The remaining parts of the structure were designed as altar sites, halls, stables, gardens, pools, throne rooms, and ceremonial chambers. The entire palace was decorated with painting in the ’Amarna style. Waterfowl and marsh scenes graced the walls, adding a natural pastoral quality to the residence. The main throne room for official ceremonies in honor of Aten was set between pillared chambers and halls, one with 30 rows of 17 pillars each. Adjacent to the palace was the temple of the god. This site had a rectangular wall that measured 2,600 by 900 feet. The temple, as many of the structures in ’Amarna, was adapted to the Nile climate and designed for outdoor services. There were few roofs evident in the architectural planning of the complexes. The homes of the ’Amarna artisans were in the southeast section of the city, surrounded by another wall. Six blocks of such residences were laid out in this area, between five parallel streets.
Akhetaten, also called “the City of the solar disk,” is supposedly named ’Amarna or Tell el-’Amarna today to commemorate a tribe of Bedouins that settled on the site approximately two centuries ago. A vast cliff cemetery was established nearby linked to ’Amarna by the royal WADI.
See also art and architecture; talatat.
’Amarna Letters A collection of correspondence spanning the reigns of amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.), AKHENATEN (r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.), and into the first year of tut’ankhamun’s reign (r. 1333-1323 b. c.e.), these were discovered in the ruins of Akhenaten’s capital of ’amarna in 1887, taken from a site called “the Place of the Letters of the Pharaohs.” Some 382 cuneiform tablets constitute the body of the collection, written in the old Babylonian dialect of the Akkadians, the lingua franca of the territory at the time. This adopted language used altered Egyptian and Syrian terms as well. The letters contain diplomatic texts that reflect the changing trade and military exploits of the era. They are actually representations of correspondence between known kingdoms, providing insights into allegiances, protocol, pacts, vassal status, and the ever-changing realms of competing empires.
Amasis (Khnemibre) (d. 526 b. c.e.) Sixth king of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty
Amasis usurped the throne of apries and ruled from 570 B. C.E. until his death. He was a general of Egypt’s armies, having served psammetichus ii (r. 595-589 b. c.e.) as commander of an expedition to nubia, modern Sudan. He served Apries (r. 589-570 b. c.e.) in the same capacity until Egypt was drawn into a war between Libya’s ruler, ADICRAN, and the Greek colony of cyrene. Apries sent troops to aid Libya in freeing itself from the Greek colonists, but they were badly defeated by the superior Greek military. The Egyptian troops promptly mutinied, and Amasis was sent to their camp in the Delta to mediate a truce. He sided with the soldiers and was hailed as the new ruler of Egypt.
Apries, forced into exile, returned in 567 b. c.e. with Greek mercenaries who had little enthusiasm for the civil war that ensued. Apries met Amasis at momemphis (probably a site near Terana on the Canopic branch of the Nile) in the Delta region and was quickly routed. He was then handed over to a mob and was slain but was buried with considerable pomp. A red granite stela was erected on the site of the battle.
Amasis, secure on the throne, proved a capable ruler. Being a commoner by birth, he brought a unique perspective to the throne, one that earned him a reputation for amiability, demonstrating a good nature, unpretentious attitudes, and a rare understanding of life among the common castes on the Nile. He started his reign in SAIS in the eastern Delta by assigning Apries’s Greek troops to MEMPHIS, where they formed a bodyguard. Amasis earned the title of “Philhellene,” or “He who loves the Greeks,” because of his concern about Greek resistance to the growing Persian imperial domain. He limited the trade activities of the Greeks in Egypt to the city of naukratis, which provided them with a haven but protected Egyptian merchants from competition at the same time. He married ladice, a Cyrenian woman, and so came to control parts of Cyprus, including the vast Cyprian fleet. A friend of Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, Amasis donated funds, about 11,000 talents, for the restoration of the temple of Apollo at Delphi after its ruination in 548 b. c.e. When CROESUS of Lydia asked for aid in repelling the Persians, Amasis proved a generous ally.
Amasis’s mother was takheredeneset, a commoner. He also married Queen nakhsebasteru, who bore a son named ’Ahmose, and Queen khedebneitheret, who was possibly the daughter of Apries. His daughter, Princess NITOCRIS (1), was officially “adopted” by ankhesneferi-
BRE, a sister of the slain Apries, as a god’s wife of amun, or a Divine Adoratrice of Amun.
He built monuments at Sais, buto, Memphis, and ABYDOS, and a temple to the god Amun in the SIWA Oasis of the LIBYAN DESERT. Only a few statues of Amasis survive, as the Persian conqueror cambyses (ruling Egypt from 525 to 522 b. c.e.) destroyed those he could find. Amasis was buried in Sais in a stone structure with double doors and pillars. SHABTIS, or tomb statues, were found on the site. His son psammetichus iii succeeded him in 526 b. c.e. but faced a Persian invasion a year later. Cambyses had Amasis’s body exhumed and ravaged because of Amasis’s support for the Greeks.
Amaunet (Amunet) The divine consort of the god AMUN, worshiped in thebes in the early Middle Kingdom (2020-1640 B. C.E.), her name meant “the hidden one.” Amaunet was also included in the ogdoad, the eight deities of hermopolis. Self-created, she was depicted as a woman wearing the crown of Lower Egypt.
Am Duat (Am Tuat) A mortuary text depicted on the walls in the tomb of tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) in the valley of the kings in thebes, the Am Duat, “Book of that which is in the underworld,” shows the nightly journey of the god Re, a prototype of the sojourn required of the deceased. The Am Duat is divided into 12 sections, representing fields or caverns, and traces the pathway into the earth that starts at the gateway of the western horizon. The text contains many adventures and torments but ends in spiritual redemption and the attainment of paradise.
See also book of the dead; tomb texts.
Amemait A ferocious divine being associated with Egyptian mortuary rituals and traditions, the creature possessed the head of a crocodile, the foreparts of a large cat, and the rear of a hippopotamus. Called “the Great of Death” or “the Devourer,” Amemait was female. The illustrations of the beast in the book of the dead depict Amemait waiting beside the scales in the judgment HALLS OF OSIRIS, where the god OSIRIS weighed the hearts of the deceased against the feather of the goddess ma’at. The hearts of those who were evil in life were given to Amemait as food. The negative confessions, claims of not committing various crimes or sins, were designed to protect the deceased from Amemait, who was clearly a dispenser of justice, not of mindless terror. amulets and spells were also employed to keep this divine being from devouring the dead. The horror involved in Amemait’s dining on the dead derived from the Egyptian’s fear of going into “nothingness,” or the endless void.
Amenemhab (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Military general of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Amenemhab served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) and AMENHOTEP II (r. 1425-1401 b. c.e.) and had a long and distinguished military career. His wife served as a nurse for the royal family, and she probably introduced him to Tuthmosis iii. His tomb on the western shore of the Nile at thebes provides elaborate autobiographical inscriptions that contain detailed accounts of Tuthmosis iii’s vigorous campaigns. Amenemhab followed this warrior pharaoh across many lands as Egypt forged an empire. on one occasion, when Tuthmosis iii recklessly started elephant hunting, Amenemhab cut off the trunk of a maddened bull elephant that charged the pharaoh. He received the third “Gold of valor” award for this feat.
On another battlefield, Amenemhab saw the enemy release a young mare into the ranks of the oncoming Egyptian cavalry. such a mare was designed to bring about a mating frenzy among the Egyptian stallions. Amenemhab slit open the belly of the mare, thus reducing the animal’s allure. He dismembered it at the same time, using the stench of blood and gore to further enrage the Egyptian steeds in their charge. Ever at the side of Tuthmosis iii, Amenemhab outlived that pharaoh and served his son and heir, Amenhotep ii, a man who delighted in military life and in hand-to-hand combat in the field.
Amenemhet I (Sehetepibre) (d. 1962 b. c.e.) Founder of the Twelfth Dynasty
He reigned from 1991 b. c.e. until his death. His name meant “amun is foremost,” and he served as the vizier of upper Egypt (the southern territories) in the reign of MONTUHOTEP IV (r. 1998-1991 B. C.E.), the last pharaoh of the Eleventh Dynasty, who died without an heir. Amen-emhet I led an expedition for the pharaoh to the wadi HAMMAMAT, a dried river gully near koptos, where the Nile swerves closest to the Red sea. There he obtained the stone used for the sarcophagus of Montuhotep iv.
Amenemhet i was a commoner, the son of one sen-wosret and a woman named nefret, listed as prominent members of a family from elephantine Island. Amen-emhet i portrayed himself as the true unifier of Egypt after years of decline and partial separation. various prophecies, including the famous one written by Nefer-rohu, were made public to guarantee authenticity for the new pharaoh’s claims. The prophecy of Nefer-rohu, also called Neferti, describes Amenemhet I as the son of “a woman of nubia” (or of the Elephantine area in modern Aswan).
Having had years of experience as a vizier, Amen-emhet knew how to force the Egyptians to accept his rule. He commanded a fleet of ships and sailed throughout the land to demand obeisance from his people. on one such voyage, Amenemhet i was accompanied by KHNUMHOTEP (1), a prince and undisputed leader of the Oryx Nome (or province) at beni hasan. There were 20
The warrior pharaoh Amenemhet III of the Middle Kingdom's Twelfth Dynasty. (Hulton Archive.)
Ships in this armada, and Amenemhet I was displaying the political support of a nome aristocrat alongside military might. He also moved the capital from Thebes to itj-TAWY, “the Seizer of the Two Lands,” near the modern town of Lisht. The capital was originally called Amen-emhet-Ity-tawy and was shortened over the years. He married nefru-totenen, who is believed to have borne SENWOSRET I, the heir. A second queen, sit-hathor, gave birth to Princess dedyet (1) and Princess Nenseb-djebet. Later in his reign a woman named nefru-sobek (2) became his queen. He had two daughters: Nefrusheri and Nyetneb.
Amenemhet I proved an efficient administrator and militarily astute ruler. He established his new capital between the boundaries of Upper and Lower Egypt in order to have increased control of the delta. He also erected the wall of the prince, a series of forts that safeguarded Egypt’s eastern and western borders. He founded SEMNA fort in Nubia and routed the Bedouins on the sinai Peninsula, using the genius of General Nysumontu. Within the palace, however, Amenemhet I faced harem revolts, one unsuccessful attempt on his life, and a last murderous assault.
In 1979 B. C.E., Amenemhet I named his son, Senwos-ret I, as his coregent, thus discouraging attempts by others to take the throne. Senwosret also received a set of “Instructions” from Amenemhet I. This document was also called the Testament of Amenemhet. In it the pharaoh declares that a ruler must avoid all intimacy with lesser courtiers, and these “Instructions” clearly define royal obligations based upon the needs of the people, including personal sacrifices and loneliness. Possibly the instruction OF AMENEMHET I was written after the second assault on the pharaoh’s life, a palace feud that was successful in bringing Amenemhet I’s reign to an end.
Senwosret I, who campaigned militarily in his father’s name, was in the desert region when word came of the assassination. He raced back to the capital with a large force and routed the enemies of his inheritance. Amen-emhet was buried in a pyramid in lisht, called “Horus of Repeating Births,” now in ruins. The assassination of Amenemhet is a key element in the plot of the tale of “SINUHE THE SAILOR.” The hero of the tale is involved in some way in the harem struggles, and he flees Egypt when Senwosret I receives word of the royal death.
See also nefer-rohu’s prophecy.
Amenemhet II (Nubkaure) (d. 1892 b. c.e.) Third ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty
He reigned from 1929 b. c.e. until his death. Amenemhet II was the son of senwosret i and Queen nefrusheri. Serving three years as coregent with his father, amenemhet II conducted two military campaigns, a foray into NUBIA, modern Sudan, and one to rout the bedouins on the SINAI Peninsula. He also made trade pacts with Syria and Levantine cities. His reign was highlighted by internal difficulties as the various nomarchs (provincial aristocrats) attempted to overthrow a centralized system of government in order to exercise independence. Beginning under Senwosret, Amenemhet II reclaimed the faiyum territory of Egypt, the lush marshland fed by the bahr YUSUF (a small river that leads into the region from the Nile between modern el-Ashmunein and old Meir). The Faiyum, called Ta-she by the Egyptians, “the Land of the Lakes,” or Payuum, became an agricultural base for the country. At various times the Faiyum extended over 4,000 square miles and included Lake moeris. The cult of SOBEK, the crocodile god, was established in Shedet, the capital of the region. Amenemhet Il’s cartouche was discovered in Lebanon, and other seals were found in the temple of montu at Thebes. He sent expeditions to the Red Sea and to punt and used the local gold mines.
Amenemhet II married Queen meryet (2), the mother of the heir, senwosret ii and Queens teo and KEMANWEB. His daughters were Ata, Atuart, Khnumt, Sit Hathor, Sit Hathor Hormeret, and Sit Hathor Meryt. Sen-wosret II served as his coregent for five years before Amenemhet II died.
Amenemhet II was buried in dashur, near Memphis, in a white pyramid originally some 263 feet square, called “The Soul of Amenemhet.” The tombs of the princesses of the reign contained a vast collection of jewelry, now prized by the modern world. A queen, keminibu, from the Thirteenth Dynasty (1784-1640 b. c.e.) was found buried there also.
Amenemhet III (Nima’atre) (d. 1797 b. c.e.) Sixth ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty
He reigned from 1844 b. c.e. until his death. Amenemhet was the son of senwosret iii and Queen neferhent (2) and is considered one of the outstanding pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.). Egypt enjoyed a period of economic growth during his reign. In an era of peace, Amenemhet III developed the faiyum region in Middle Egypt and used the mines and quarries of the SINAI and southern Egyptian regions to good advantage. Amenemhet III also held the government of Egypt in tight rein. In the Sinai, 49 texts concerning the era were discovered at serabit el-khadim, with others found at WADI maghara and wadi nasb. Originally the Egyptians set up seasonal camps at such mining sites, but in Amenemhet Ill’s reign permanent settlements were established, complete with residences, defensive fortifications, wells, and cemeteries. The temple of hathor at Serabit el-Khadim, designed to honor that goddess, was enlarged, and military units were assigned to the mines for protection of workers gathering gems.
In the south, Amenemhet III fortified the great trading post at semna, at the southern end of the second cataract. Most of Amenemhet Ill’s efforts were aimed at the Faiyum region, however, as he reclaimed the dense marshlands and furthered the irrigation projects and dikes started by other pharaohs of his line. He was honored in the Greco-Roman eras for his reclamation of the Faiyum and worshiped under the name Lamares. Two colossal statues of Amenemhet III made of granite on limestone bases were discovered at biahmu, a site northeast of HAWARA. He decorated the temple of the god sobek at Kiman Fares and built a chapel for renenutet, the Egyptian goddess of the harvest.
Amenemhet Ill’s queen was a’at, the mother of amenemhet iv, who was buried at dashur in a southwest corridor. The pyramid there, called “Amenemhet Is Beautiful,” was faulty, and the pharaoh abandoned it and built a second one at Hawara, in the southeastern Faiyum, called “Amenemhet Lives.” This second pyramid is called a LABYRINTH because of its intricate chambers, trapdoors, dead-end passages, and sliding panels. The burial chamber is a vast block of quartzite, hollowed out and sunk into the foundation of the pyramid. Amenemhet Ill’s sarcophagus, also of quartzite, and a smaller one for princess Neferu-ptah, his daughter, were found in the chamber. This burial site was sealed by a single slab of stone that weighed an estimated 45 tons.
Amenemhet IV (Ma’akherure) (d. 1787 b. c.e.) Seventh ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty
He reigned from 1799 b. c.e. until his death. The son of amenemhet iii and probably Queen A’at, he served as coregent with his father for two years and carried on the family’s projects in the faiyum, the lush region in middle Egypt. He is believed to have erected the temple of qasr el-saghah, just north of Lake qarun. He also completed Amenemhet Ill’s temple at Medinet ma’adi, and he sent an expedition to the sinai and maintained trade pacts. sobekneferu, the sister of Amenemhet IV, whom he had married, assumed the throne when he died after a brief reign. Sobekneferu thus became a woman pharaoh, the only woman holding that title in the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.). The two pyramids at mazghuna, in the southern part of dashur, are ascribed to this royal pair, the last rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty, bringing to an end this royal line and an entire historical period.
World History
