Cotta Messalinius, M. Aurelius (fl. first century c. e.) Consul in 20 c. e.
Also known as M. Aurelius Cotta Maximus, Cotta was the son of messalla corvinus, the writer, Cotta was one of the most despised figures of the reign of Tiberius (14-37 c. e.). He sat in the Senate, ever prepared to accuse and to prosecute any poor victim chosen by the emperor. In 20 c. e. he led the attack on Piso, and in 29 tried to have Agrippina the Elder and her son Nero (son of Germanicus) condemned. After the fall of sejanus in 31 c. e. created a difficult environment for imperial henchmen, Cotta found himself facing charges. When the Senate would not protect him from these prosecutions, he appealed to Tiberius, who wrote a long letter in his defense. Tacitus wasted no opportunity to attack Cotta in the Annals. In 24 c. e., however, Cotta did propose one sensible piece of legislation. Governors of the provinces, he argued, should be held accountable for the crimes of their wives, an idea considered insulting by Tacitus.
Cottiaen Alps Mountain range (also called Alpes Cot-tiae) between the Maritime Alps of the French-Italian sea-coast and the Graiaen Alps of northwestern Italy Originally inhabited by a native people, the area was subjugated by Augustus sometime around 8 b. c.e. Its king COTTIUS (after whom the mountains were named) became a client of Rome; subsequently, the Cottiaen Alps benefited from imperial attention. Roads were built and an arch placed at a conspicuous point to honor Augustus. The Romans used the passes to maintain communications with Gaul.
Cottius (fl. first century c. e.) King of the Ligurians Cottius earned the honor of having a part of the Alpine range named after him—the Cottiaen Alps. Cottius very wisely submitted to Augustus and sometime around 8 b. c.e. signed a peace treaty with Rome. His domains included most of the surrounding regions and peoples, and as a client he was reliable. He built roads and allowed his territory to serve as a launching site for at least one expedition during the reign of Tiberius. An arch for Augustus was also constructed. In 44 C. E., Claudius recognized the claims of the king’s son, Marcus Julius Cot-tius. This new king sat on the throne until some time during the reign of Nero, when he died. With his passing his realm became part of the Roman territories.
Cotys (1) (fl. first century c. e.) King of Armenia Minor Grandson of Polemo, king of Pontus, Cotys received the rule of Armenia Minor in 38 c. E. from gaius Caligula. He was a friend of the emperor from the days of his youth. Claudius certified his control over the Armenian kingdom, although he was one of the last possessors of the throne before the annexation of the country under Vespasian.
Cotys (2) (d. before 62 c. e.) King of the Bosporus son of Aspurgeus of the Bosporan kingdom and his second wife, the Thracian Princess Gepaepyris, Cotys was the half-brother of Mithridates, son of Aspurgeus and Queen Dynamis. In 37 or 38 C. E., the king died, and GAIUS CALIGULA named Polemo II of Pontus as the ruler. Gepaepyris and her stepson Mithridates took effective control. Claudius affirmed Mithridates’s claim in 41 c. e. Cotys, meanwhile, waited for his half-brother to grow ambitious. Sometime around 44 or 45, the prince revealed to Claudius that Mithridates planned a revolt. The grateful emperor gave Cotys the throne. After overcoming his brother’s attempted usurpation (Cotys relied upon the help of Roman troops under the command of Julius Aquila), Cotys administered the kingdom until his death, sometime before Nero seized it in 62. A number of other Bosporan kings bore the same name.
Cotys of Thrace (fl. early first century c. e.) Son of the Thracian King Rhoemetalces
Cotys became part of the struggle for the throne of THRACE in 19 C. E. When Rhoemetalces died in the reign of Augustus (27 B. C.E.-14 c. e.), the Thracian realm was divided between his son Cotys and his brother, Rhescu-poris. Cotys ruled the civilized and abundant regions, while his uncle controlled the wilder, mountainous territories.
A peace existed between the two rulers for several years, but by 19 C. E. the marauders of Rhescuporis had developed into outright military columns. Emperor Tiberius sent a centurion to warn them, and a treaty was to be negotiated. Instead, Rhescuporis trapped Cotys and put him to death. Unable to tolerate such actions, Tiberius ordered Pomponius Flaccus to bring Rhescuporis to Rome. There he was accused by Cotys’s widow, the greatly respected Antonia Tryphaena, a relative of
Marc Anthony. Cotys was avenged, and his sons shared in the distribution of power in Thrace.
Crassus, Canidius See candidus crassus, publius.
Crassus (1), Marcus Licinius (c. 115-53 b. c.e.) A member of the first triumvirate and a leading figure in the final days of the Republic
Crassus was known as one of the wealthiest men in Rome. His family had long been involved in politics, and his father served as consul in 97 B. C.E. before warring against Marius with sulla, a struggle resulting in the father’s death in 87 B. C.E. The young Crassus immediately enlisted with sulla, after returning from the safety of spain. Loyalty to sulla was rewarded when large amounts of confiscated property fell under his control after sulla became the master of Rome. He continued his accumulation of wealth and rose in political power. Money he amassed from his estates, from the slave trade and silver mines. Political strength came from his popularity carefully cultivated over the years. He became praetor, earning eventually a proconsular position over several legions, putting down Spartacus and his slave army in 72-71
B. C.E.
Military achievements were not to be his road to supremacy in the Republic. Another, more able general emerged—pompey the great. Crassus had watched with growing alarm as Pompey first seized martial fame with his own exploits and then stole Crassus’s glory in 71 B. C.E. by crushing the pitiful remnants of Spartacus’s forces. From that moment on Crassus worked against Pompey, although serving in the consulship of 70 with him. They argued and debated every issue, rendering the time of their consulships absolutely useless. Crassus did finance a huge festival with 10,000 tables for the citizens.
The Catiline affair next dominated Rome in 63 b. c.e. Many officials of note fell, and as Crassus had served with Catiline in the censorship, he too came under suspicion for a time. He was saved by Julius Caesar’s ambitions for the consulship and for greatness. Caesar desired to increase his powers and needed allies. With Crassus and Pompey so bitterly opposed to one another, Caesar sought a reconciliation between them. In 60 b. c.e., Crassus agreed to join a triumvirate with Pompey and Caesar. Each shared in the full benefits of the state.
Crassus found his situation virtually unchanged. Pompey had grown in the view of the optimate party in Rome and Caesar amassed victories in Gaul, while Cras-sus did little to improve his personal fortunes. In 56 B. C.E. a conference was held at luca to change this situation. Crassus, it was decided, would share a consulship again with Pompey, and Caesar would remain in Gaul to finish his conquests. For Crassus, however, such gains were not enough.
Aside from his defeat of Spartacus, for which a triumph had been celebrated, Crassus was no match for the reputations of his fellow triumvirs. He resolved to establish himself militarily and demanded the territory of Syria. Despite his age, which was 60, and deafness in one ear, Crassus put together an army for the invasion of Parthia. Two years of planning and meticulous preparation preceded one of the worst disasters ever inflicted upon Roman arms, in 53 b. c.e. In the deserts of Mesopotamia, near a town called CARRHAE, the would-be general allowed his troops to be surrounded by the Parthians. Under a hail of arrows and the relentless sun, Crassus watched as his army disappeared. Accounts varied as to his death. Plutarch reported that a Parthian named Pomaxathres killed him, and Dio wrote that he died at the hands of one of his men in order to avoid capture. His head and right hand were sent to the king of Parthia, Orodes. That monarch reportedly poured molten gold into Crassus’s mouth, saying: “Satisfy yourself with the metal for which in life you were so greedy.”
Crassus (2), Marcus Licinius (fl. last first century B. C.E.) General and one-time follower of Sextus Pompey and Marc Antony
Crassus served with Octavian as consul in 30 b. c.e., a sign of Octavian’s goodwill toward members of the various political parties in existence before actium. In 29 B. C.E. he was sent to Macedonia to repel an invasion of the Bastarnae (see Scythians). After crushing these wild people, he pursued them into moesia, subdividing the country along the way The Scythians turned to give battle, and Crassus launched a devastating attack upon them, personally killing their King deldo. He then finished the Scythians before marching against the Moe-sians. Winter was coming, and Crassus retired to Thrace but had to launch another expedition against the Scythians, who were seeking vengeance upon the few Roman allies of that region. The victories of Crassus were celebrated by the Senate. He could have received the spolia opima for slaying Deldo (the honorific dedication of his armor to Jupiter Feretrius) had he possessed the title of IMPERATOR, but Octavian kept that for himself, perhaps preferring to deny such an honor to a former lieutenant of Antony.
Sance in force, part of the preparation for Caesar’s expeditions two years later.
Crassus achieved his greatest success at the expense of the tribes in Gallia Aquitania. In 56 b. c.e., as Caesar labored to maintain his hold over Gaul, Crassus was sent with 12 cohorts and cavalry to invade all of Aqui-tania. His advance was absolutely triumphant, and the region became pacified very quickly. A year later, Caesar gave Crassus a cavalry command under his triumvir father. Publius Crassus arrived in Syria in time to embark with his father on the ill-fated Parthian invasion in 53; he was given the right flank of the advancing Roman host. The ensuing battle of carrhae was a disaster. The Roman army marched into the dry lands away from Euphrates, and there the legions were surrounded by the Parthians under the command of surenas. As the enemy rained down arrows, Publius tried to charge the enemy in order to buy time for the main body to form into a defensive square. His frontal assault was initially effective, but soon he and his men found themselves isolated from their comrades. Publius and his cohorts were cut to pieces; the young legate’s head was placed on a spear and displayed by the Parthians who rode gleefully around the remaining Romans. Morale perished with Publius, and Marcus Licinius Crassus suffered one of the worst defeats in Roman history. According to Plutarch, Publius admired Cicero and his oratorical skills.
Cremona See bedriacum (second battle).
Cremutius Cordus, Aulus (d. 25 c. e.) A writer and highly respected figure of the early first century C. E. Cremutius Cordus authored a History in which he commended Marcus Brutus and praised Gaius Cassius. The work was honored by Augustus, who may have not only read it but also accorded Cordus the honor of having him read out loud in the palace. sejanus accused him of improper writings in his History, especially with regard to Brutus and Cassius. He was found guilty, returned home, and starved himself to death. The books of Cordus were then banned and burned by the aediles, although his daughter Marcia hid many copies. Gaius Caligula later rehabilitated him, posthumously.
Crassus, Publius Licinius (d. 53 b. c.e.) A legate during the late Republic
Crassus served both Julius caesar and his father Marcus Licinius crassus (1). Crassus was an officer of Caesar’s army in Gaul. He was used for a number of missions conducted with a considerable freedom of operation. Caesar sent him with a legion into Normandy and Brittany in early 57 b. c.e.; he conquered the tribes there. Later that year he sailed across the Channel conducting a reconnais-
Crescentia, Cannutia (d. 213 c. e.) One of the four Vestal Vilrgins sentenced to death by Caracalla in 213. Cannutia Crescentia earned the displeasure of the emperor, and he ordered her to die. While her sisters, Clodia Laeta, Pomponia Rufina, and Aurelia Severa, were all buried alive, Cannutia threw herself off a roof.
Crete and Cyrenaica Two formerly different territo-ries—Cyrenaica on the North African coast, west of
Egypt, and Crete, an island in the Mediterranean some 200 miles north of Cyrenaica—combined by the Republic in 67 B. C.E. to form one province. In his reorganization of the Roman world, Emperor Augustus chose to certify the union once more, as control had waned during the troubled years before his rise. The union was convenient in governmental affairs only, however, for neither half could ever be so organized as to warrant independent provincial status. Under normal circumstances it was a senatorial province under a proconsul.
Piracy and its assault on the general sea routes of the Mediterranean first attracted the attention of Rome in or around 67 B. C.E. In that year, Caecilius Metellus landed and easily captured the island of Crete. Henceforth it belonged firmly to the Romans, who brought it under further control with the use of colonists, former soldiers in search of land.
Roman life, however, never took firm root in Cretan soil. Only one real colony was granted full status, Knos-sus (Colonia Julia Cnossus), and the people of native origin remained unchanged for centuries. They retained their own tribal systems, had magistrates and continued to use Greek as the language of choice. To them Latin remained a strange tongue, used only by those of great power who had arrived to change all aspects of life. The Cretans were not violently opposed to Rome; on the contrary, they benefited handsomely from Rome’s gifts of money and labor. They just did not surrender their way of living. For the imperial officials given the task of working with the residents of Crete, the fulfillment of duty was not easy. These Romans, however, chose to aid the Cretans in the areas that they understood best, namely economics and architecture.
Fertile fields naturally made agriculture the financial base of Cretan stability, and the colonists introduced better farming and harvesting techniques. But the intrusion of government into such matters dissipated the benefits to some degree, for large tracts of land were taken over by the Italians, especially families from Campania, who received rights to estates from Augustus.
Builders arrived on Crete as well, to expedite both a series of construction programs (especially in the second century c. e.) and to effect repairs on the towns all over the island. An earthquake in 46 c. e. flattened most of the cities, and administrators for the next century worked to overcome the terrible damage. Despite such natural disasters, the Cretans spent the entire imperial era in isolation. The only cities of note on Crete were Knossus and Gortyn. Knossus, of course, captured the imagination of the Romans with its fabled past. Gortyn, in contrast, was a thoroughly modern site and consequently served as the provincial capital.
Cyrenaica formed a diverse but beautiful stretch of land directly east of the Gulf of Sidra and the provinces of Africa and Numidia. Cyrenaica stood isolated from the rest of Africa by deserts and by the terrible sun. Greek colonists settled there in the seventh century B. C.E., when they founded the Pentapolis or five colonies: Barea (later Ptolemais), Hespera (later Berenice), Teuchira (later Arsi-noe), Cyrene, and Apollonia.
For a time Egypt occupied the country through the Ptolemies, but in 96 B. C.E., the Republic took control of the dead Ptolemy Apion’s royal lands, which was followed by the region’s complete annexation in 74 B. C.E. Thought surely was given to combining Cyrenaica with other African areas, such as Tripolitana, but the difficulties inherent environmentally and geographically necessitated a different solution, in 67 B. C.E.
Wars raged along its arid borders for most of the early reign of Augustus, as Sulpicius Quirinius waged several campaigns against the nomadic tribes from 6 B. C.E. until 2 C. E. Augustus then dealt with the terrible economic and administrative problems. Although the pirates had been cleared from the seas, more pillaging was done by the governors. Augustus and his successors took swift action, which resulted in charges and prosecutions. Men like Pedius Blaesus, the provincial governor who in 59 c. e. was ousted from the Senate for bribery, soon learned that the position could not be abused.
As a result, Cyrenaica became a model of Roman efficiency, for the state not only protected the citizen’s rights and culture, limiting colonization, but also helped the economy to develop and prosper. Engineering projects, improved irrigation, roads, communication, and district organization became commonplace as magistrates and administrators cared for the legal and governmental needs of the cities and the estates.
Starting with Cyrene, all of Cyrenaica blossomed, and while its wealth was never vast, by the start of the second century the province could lay claim to true prosperity. Much of the credit had to be given to the special legates appointed by the emperors to organize the land allotments. From the time of Claudius to the reign of the Flavians, officers such as L. Acilius Strabo and Q. Paco-nius Agrippinus worked hard in the service of the province and its people.
From 115 to 117 C. E., the Jewish revolt caused chaos in Cyprus, Egypt, and Cyrenaica. Cities were destroyed and thousands massacred. Cyrene was ruined utterly. Emperor Hadrian instituted a major building program, restoring damaged communities and granting the status of coloniae to Cyrene and Arsinoe. He also created Hadri-anopolis. With this aid, however, came the unavoidable Roman cultural influences. Too much had taken place in the region to restore the original morale and prosperity of the inhabitants. The result was an uncomfortable mixture of the old and the new.
Crispina (d. 182 c. e.) First wife of Emperor Commodus Marcus Aurelius, Crispina’s father-in-law, apparently regretted the union of 178 c. e. but had little choice because of the demands of state. Crispina suffered at the
Hands of Commodus’s sister, lucilla, who resented her status as empress, a seat of honor she held once herself as the wife of Lucius Verus. When Commodus deteriorated mentally, Crispina’s situation became precarious. In 182, believing her guilty of adultery, Commodus exiled her to Capri, along with his sister, who had been exposed as a member of a plot against his life. Both women were subsequently executed.
Crispinilla, Calvia (fl. first century c. e.) A mistress of Nero
Crispinilla succeeded, as did most of the imperial favorites, in amassing great power and influence. In 67 c. e., she possessed the title of caretaker of the imperial wardrobe and also was charged by Nero with watching over his eunuch while the emperor journeyed to Greece. In the fulfillment of her duties she managed to plunder Rome. Nero later used her as an emissary to the rebelling legate of Africa, Clodius Macer, but she was unsuccessful in preventing an uprising.
See also helius; polycleitus.
Crispinus, Rufrius (d. 66 c. e.) Prefect of the Praetorian Guard in the reign of Claudius (41-54 c. e.)
With his coprefect, Lusius Geta, Crispinus was removed in 51 by Empress Agrippina, Claudius’s wife. He had been appointed coprefect sometime before 47, for in that year he was sent to Baiae to arrest Valerius Asiaticus on the charge of conspiracy against the emperor. Although the real reason for the arrest had been the hatred of Empress Messallina, Crispinus received the Praetorian insignia.
Crispinus remained at his post for the next four years, watching Messallina die and be replaced by the powerful Agrippina. He had apparently been loyal to Messallina as had Geta, and the new wife of the emperor could tolerate no one who might disagree with her or prevent her domination in the palace. on the pretext that the Praetorian Guard needed one commander only, she convinced Claudius to remove both Crispinus and Geta in 51.
His fortunes continued to decline under Nero. His wife, Poppaea, one of the most beautiful women in the empire, set upon an adulterous affair with the handsome and influential M. Junius Otho, the eventual emperor. Leaving Crispinus and her son behind, she married Otho and then found Nero. Aware of Crispinus’s one-time union with Poppaea, Nero banished him in 65 to Sardinia, where he lived in exile until the following year. In 66, Nero ordered him to die.
Crispinus, Tullius (d. 193 c. e.) Prefect of the Praetorian Guard under Emperor Didius Julianus Crispinus served in his post (along with the coprefect, Flavius Genealis) for a brief period in 193. After buying the Roman Empire in an auction conducted by the Praetorian Guard, Didius Julianus allowed the cohorts to choose their own prefects, and Crispinus and Genealis were their favorites. The reign of Julianus proved brief, for the legions of Septimius Severus marched on Italy Crispinus was sent to block the arrival of severus at Ravenna, but when the fleet fell into Severus’s hands and many officers joined his cause, Crispinus returned to Rome. Desperately trying to save his throne, Julianus once more dispatched Crispinus, this time to meet and negotiate with Severus in the hope of securing an agreement to share the rule. Again Crispinus was unsuccessful. Fearing that he may have been ordered to commit murder, Severus put the prefect to death on the advice of Julius Laetus.
Crispus, Flavius Julius (305-326 c. e.) Oldest son of Constantine the Great and his first wife, Minervina Crispus received an education from the family friend, Lactantius, while living in Gaul. In March of 317, he received the title of Caesar (junior emperor), which he shared with his brother Constantine. Crispus served in the army of his father and commanded part of the fleet used in 324 to destroy the emperor of the East, Licinius, at the battle of adrianople. He then traveled to Rome with his father but somehow fell out of favor on the way Early in 326, at Pola, he was executed on Constantine’s order, perhaps for committing adultery with his stepmother Fausta, although the exact reason remained unclear.
Crispus of Vercellae, Vibius (10-90) First century orator
Crispus acquired the respect and friendship of Emperors Nero, Vitellius, Vespasian, and Domitian. A native of Vercellae, he served as consul under Nero, Vespasian, and Domitian. He was never very popular with the average Roman, but he cultivated excellent relations with the rulers of his time and managed to survive the considerable political upheaval in Rome during the period. In describing the excessive orgies of Vitellius, he noted after our especially lavish banquet, “If I had not become sick I surely would have died.”
Ctesiphon One of the two great capitals of the empire of parthia, situated in Babylonia along the east bank of the Tigris River, near modern Baghdad. Under the Parthi-ans the large city was used as a winter residence of the kings, while Ecbatana was the royal summer home. When the Persians seized control of the entire empire, Ctesiphon remained the seat of power. Situated on the great trade lane from the east, the city provided a rest point for caravans and merchants traveling back and forth from as far as Spain and China. Ctesiphon was reportedly very large and can actually be called an amalgamation of two cities, Ctesiphon and Seleuceia. The Persian kings liked Ctesiphon because of its central location, especially with relation to Roman Syria and Armenia, and SHAPUR I (214-272 C. E.) built himself a grand palace there.
Strategically, however, the capital was exposed, and any advance down the Euphrates, through Mesopotamia, produced a serious threat. The Parthians and the Persians lost Ctesiphon on several occasions. In 115-116 C. E., the Emperor Trajan not only captured the city but also used the victory to award himself the title of Parthicus. Avidius Cassius, Marcus Aurelius’s great general, burned down the palace of Vologases III; in 197, Septimius Severus allowed his legions to plunder the city and to massacre its inhabitants. With the coming of the Persians, many things changed. ardashir i around 224 C. E. named Ctesiphon his home, and the dynastically vigorous successors defeated Rome several times in wars launched from the site. The Roman military recovery late in the third century once more imperiled Ctesiphon. For a time several emperors marched around Babylonia, virtually unmolested. These included Carus in 283 and more importantly, Galerius in 296, whose victories were never forgiven and caused the incessant wars of Shapur II for much of the fourth century.
Cuicul Military colony created in the late first century C. E. (c. 96). Cuicul was one of the numerous Roman colonies in North Africa (see thamugadi; thugga; thys-DRUS), specifically in numidia. The original walls of the colony were outgrown by the middle of the second century C. E., and the city emerged as one of the most interesting sites in Africa. Cuicul possessed all of the normal buildings associated with Roman colonies, including baths and various basilicas. It also had a Senate chamber, a forum of some size, and a theater. The colonists, however, were blessed with two other notable structures, the Temple of the Severans and the Arch of Caracalla. The arch was erected in 216 C. E., as part of a large effort by the city to honor the family of Septimius Severus. It stood just north of the Severan temple and near the square named after the family The temple was completed around 230 and contained all of the normal elements found in classical Roman religious buildings. Cuicul also became known as Djemila.
Cunobellinus (d. 42 c. e.) King of the Catuvellauni, a powerful tribe in Britain, from about 5 c. e. to 41 or 42 c. e. He was the son of the powerful leader Tasciovanus and took over the throne with an eye toward solidification and expansion. Thus he conquered or acquired dominance over most of southeastern England. Ruling from CAMULODUNUM (Colchester), Cunobellinus furthered the economic growth of the islands and ties with the belgae on the Continent. The Romans knew him as the king of the Britons. He had three sons: caratacus, Togodumnus, and Amminius. Caratacus and Todogumnus agreed with their father’s anti-Roman policies, but Amminius favored improved relations and eventually fled to the Romans. Cunobellinus died shortly after, and the stage was set for the invasion by Claudius in 43 c. e.
CUra annonae The original board charged with the supply of corn for Rome, its name meaning “care for the harvest.” The task of this group’s members was handed eventually by Augustus to the newly created office of the praefectus annonae.
See also annona.
CUra aquarum Board that maintained the water supply and the aqueducts of Rome. The three members were appointed by the emperor, with a presiding officer and the pay and full rights of public officials. Augustus founded the board in 11 b. c.e. but acted in coordination with the Senate. The first presiding officer of the cura aquarum was Messalla Corvinus.
Curae palatiorum The board overseeing residences of the emperors during the late empire. They were under the care of the praepositus sacri cubiculi.
See also domus.
Curatores Agents of the imperial government who oversaw the finances of the various cities of the empire. The institution probably began under Emperor trajan, who sent out reliable officials, some of senatorial rank, to examine the accounts of the cities. Eventually he appointed them to other provinces as well, such as bithy-NIA. Their original role was as advisers and to stem corruption. However, they provided the emperors with a means of bureaucratic control and could dominate a community by virtue of their special status. Increased centralization was the inevitable result.
Curia The meeting house of the senate, specifically, and the name also applied to a meeting place generally. Senatorial proceedings were held throughout Rome’s history in several buildings: the curia hostilia, curia pom-PEY, and the curia julia. Tradition dictated that curia be prominently positioned with access to the sky to observe omens.
Curia Cornelia The curia begun in 52 b. c.e. by Faus-tus Sulla, the son of Sulla the dictator. it was intended to restore the curia hostilia, but Julius caesar ordered construction to cease in the mid-forties, in favor of his own CURIA JULIA. A lingering dislike for Sulla led the Romans to destroy the work and to replace it with a temple.
World History
