Conclusion

As a state, Rome changed significantly in the period of the republic, not only in the sense of geographical expansion, but also in terms of of sovereignty and institutions. The state became more complex, comprising Roman citizens, allies, and provincials, in whose lives the state became more and more involved, broadening the spectrum of state functions. Public functions in the earliest states may be reduced to three fields: religion, justice, and war. Much of the process of state formation originated in war. The creation of an empire went hand in hand with bureaucratization, institutionalization, and regularization. In particular the wars against Pyrrhus and Carthage boosted the development of various institutions, including magistracies, taxation, and coinage.

Rome expanded geographically, but it took over only part of the sovereignty of the states it subjected. The provinces did not differ significantly from the alliance in Italy, as both consisted of largely self-governing communities. Sovereignty in war was monopolized by Rome, but involvement was limited in other fields. Rome’s military power grew by the exploitation of the manpower of the Italian states and material resources of the provinces. Coercion on the basis of military stength was part of the power structure of the republic, and would remain so under the empire. However, the functioning of the empire was also based on the cooperation of the allied and provincial elites with Rome.

The end result may be seen in the period of the civil wars. Having taken control of the instruments of the state, a handful of generals mobilized armies of hundreds of thousands of troops. It reflects the leveling within the empire that Italy was hit just as hard as the provinces by the costs of war on such a scale. Augustus, having emerged from this struggle as sole ruler, fully understood that maintaining power was based not only on coercion, but also on bargaining with the people who mattered.