Discussion

The archaeology of the cathedral unequivocally demonstrates the existence of a community at Carlisle prior to the foundation of the Augustinian priory and the diocese in the early 12th century. Coins of Athelstan and Aethelred II, together with metalwork including copper alloy belt fittings (Figure 9.5), a gold toggle, and probable iron-bound coffins all indicate a date for this community in the Anglo-Scandinavian period, confirmed by a small number of radiocarbon determinations (Batt 2014). Furthermore, subsequent geophysical work provides hints that the cemetery was extensive, and probably belonged to a church thought to lie at the eastern end of the Cathedral precinct.

Neither isotopic nor osteological analyses provided evidence of non-local origins, although the possibility of some biological diversity is raised. There is no suggestion, for example, of a marine protein diet as was found in two burials excavated from a Viking cemetery at Westness in the Orkney Islands. At Whithorn, Galloway, marine protein was part of the diets of high status 14th to 15th century clerics, but the lay population even at a location so close to the sea, enjoyed a terrestrial diet, as was also the case at Carlisle (Montgomery et al. 2009).

It is currently difficult to interpret these data beyond suggesting two possibilities. The first is that the Viking Age population of Carlisle was largely of local origin, and the second suggests a hybrid population in which locals lived side by side with incomers from Ireland, Scandinavia, Scotland, or the Danelaw. This latter possibility is in accord with isotopic studies of skeletal data from Dublin, Westness, and Trelleborg that strongly imply that Viking communities, and armies in particular, were not necessarily homogeneous groups, but were of diverse origins (Montgomery et al. 2014; Price et al. 2011).

FIGURE 9.5 Copper alloy belt buckle and strap end of early 10th century date. Similar belt suites are known from York and the Isle of Man. (Photograph courtesy of Philip Cracknell.)

Finally, there is the question posed in the title of this paper: Were there Vikings in Carlisle? At present, the answer is equivocal. On the one hand, a population of high status individuals of mixed ethnicity would not be surprising based on Carlisle’s location. The found metalwork certainly has affinities both in the Danelaw and in the Western Isles. The discovery of an oval brooch and other items of Hiberno-Norse type at Cumwhitton, only 3 miles from Carlisle, also supports the idea that Vikings were present nearby (Griffiths, Chapter 2; Lee, Chapter 4).

Viking Age sculpture is known from Carlisle and Stanwix (Bailey and Cramp 1988, pp. 84-87 and 147). Place-names also indicate a strong Scandinavian presence in Cumbria, but they too are mostly distributed around the west coast, Lakeland, and the upper Eden valley rather than in the immediate vicinity of Carlisle (Fellows-Jensen 1985). On the other hand, neither osteological nor isotopic data have helped us identify non-local individuals with certainty. Finally, we may note that three stones forming part of the 12th century fabric of the cathedral bear runes in Old Norse. As there would be little point in creating an inscription that could not be read, we may conclude that Old Norse could be understood in the local community (McCarthy 2014).

If the pre-Norman cemetery below the cathedral is indeed extensive, it is likely to have potential for future research on the ethnic mix of the Carlisle population. For this to be realized, it will be necessary to identify areas that have witnessed less post-Norman disturbance. This is not an insignificant task because the Anglo-Scandinavian period lay at the interface between the kingdoms of the Scots and the English and occupied a time when the seeds of urbanization were again taking root.