A first element of Rome’s success consisted of its vast manpower, which was a decisive advantage in the wars against the great Mediterranean powers. However, the political system that enabled Rome to use the manpower resources of the Italian peninsula was already created during the conquest of Italy - as Pyrrhus discovered, whose relatively small forces defeated their Roman opponents on several occasions only to find new armies raised against him. His own army of professional soldiers could not be so easily replenished, making his losses - despite his victories - much harder to bear.
Rome’s manpower turned out to be crucial in the struggle against Hannibal during the Second Punic War. According to Polybius (2.24), the list of men capable of bearing arms among Roman citizens and allies that was presented to the Roman authorities on the eve of the Second Punic War numbered about 700,000 infantry soldiers and 70,000 horsemen. Although Polybius’ numbers cannot be taken at face value, they indicate the vast pool of potential recruits that Rome could fall back upon.1 The manpower available to Rome explains how Rome could survive a war that started so disastrously and even continue to wage war on several fronts simultaneously. However, Roman resources during the Second Punic War were stretched to the limit. Roman armies were defeated and almost annihilated at Lake Trasimene in 217 and at Cannae in 216. At Cannae, at least 40,000 Romans and allies are said to have lost their lives. The number of legions raised during the war also illustrates the strain on Roman manpower. While a total force of four legions each year had been normal in previous decades, the number of legions was raised to more than twenty annually from 214 until 206. These figures do not reflect the actual number of men under arms, since casualties and problems of recruitment in the end resulted in seriously undermanned legions. Nevertheless, it has been estimated that at the height of the war, 29 percent of adult male citizens were serving in the legions. After the war, these numbers were reduced to 10-15 percent.1 In addition, the war against Hannibal required some legions to remain under arms for many successive years.
Rome could sustain such an effort because it recruited its soldiers from among its entire citizenry. According to Polybius (6.19-21), all men of military age (between 18 and 46) who owned property worth at least 400 drachmas (probably equal to
4,000 asses) had to present themselves annually at the Capitol, where Roman officers selected the recruits from those present. The selection of recruits was called the dilectus (‘‘the choosing’’). In practice, in Polybius’ time soldiers were not only mustered in Rome but also on other locations because Roman citizens were increasingly spread across the peninsula.15 The recruiting system ensured a vast pool of experienced soldiers since, apart from the youngest recruits, most men had already served on one or more campaigns. Hence Rome was able to bear disastrous losses and still manage to raise armies that were ready to fight. Only during the severest crises, such as the early years of the Second Punic War, are we told that Rome was forced to enroll slaves and freedmen in its armies.
In contrast to Greek cities, Rome readily accepted foreigners amongst its citizenry and even incorporated defeated communities into the Roman state. Consequently, the available manpower steadily increased, thereby contributing to Rome’s military power. From 338 onward, partial citizenship was forced upon some of the subjected peoples. Rome had no desire to incorporate all its defeated enemies, since that would have been impossible in a state that still perceived itself as essentially a city. A system of alliances was created that tied the independent tribes and communities in Italy to Rome (see also Chapter 28). The allies remained autonomous and had various rights and privileges, but all the Italic allies were obliged to offer support in times of war. Rome devised a system that made good use of the manpower and resources of allies and subjected peoples while maintaining their character as independent communities. Rome annexed part of the land of defeated communities in order to establish colonies. The settlers of some of these colonies became Roman citizens, but most received Latin citizenship, which meant that their citizens served in the allied forces.
World History
