Fungi produce a large variety of secondary metabolites, but often only when the fungal cells cease active growth. Some of these secondary metabolites are beneficial to humans, whereas others are toxic, and still others may have useful medical effects.
Fungi supply organic acids for industrial uses: citric acid for the food, beverage, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and detergent industries; itaconic acid for the plastic, paint, and printer’s-ink industries; fumaric acid for the paper, resin, fruit juice, and dessert industries (Bigelis and. Arora 1992;Zidwick 1992); gluconic acid for the food, beverage, cleaning, and metal-finishing industries; and malic and lactic acids for the food and beverage industries. In addition, several fungi produce rennets for the dairy industry; among these are Byssochlamys fulva, Candida lipolytica, Chlamydo-mucor oryzae, Flammulina velutipes, Rhizopus spp., and Trametes ostreiformis (Sternberg 1978).
Certain fungi (especially Streptomyces spp.) have proven to be useful as sources of a host of antibiotics that act as inhibitors of bacterial cell-wall synthesis (Oiwa 1992), as antifungal agents (Tanaka 1992), as antiviral agents (Takeshima 1992), and as antiprotozoal and anthelminthic agents (Otoguro and Tanaka 1992). Some also produce antitumor compounds (Komiyama and Funayama 1992), cell-differentiation inducers (Yamada 1992), enzyme inhibitors (Tanaka et al. 1992), immunomodulation agents (Yamada 1992), and vasoactive substances (Nakagawa 1992). In addition, fungi have been used to produce herbicides (Okuda 1992), fungicides, and bactericides of plants (Okuda and Tanaka 1992).
A number of secondary metabolites of fungi, however, are toxic to humans and their domestic animals. Aflatoxins are hepatotoxic and carcinogenic; deoxyni-valenol is emetic; ergot alkaloids are vasoconstrictive, gangrenous, hemorrhagic, and neurotoxic; zear-alenone causes vulvovaginitis in swine; tri-chothecenes produce vomiting, oral necrosis, and hemorrhage; ochratoxin causes nephrotoxicity; and macrocyclic trichothecenes cause mucosal necrosis (Marasas and Nelson 1987).
Those species of the fungal genus Claviceps that grow on cereals (as for example, Claviceps purpurea) produce a variety of pharmacologically active compounds with positive and negative effects on humans. Among these are the alkaloids lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ergometrine, ergotrienine, ergotamine, ergosinine, ergocristine, ergocornine, ergocristinene, ergocryptine, and ergocryptinine. Some of these alkaloids are responsible for the disease ergotism, but others are used beneficially - in childbirth, or to treat migraines (Johannsson 1962).
Still other fungi associated with cereals and legumes produce a wide variety of toxins. These have been implicated in aflatoxin and liver cancer in Africa, in esophageal cancer in Africa and Asia, and in endemic nephritis in the Balkans (Stoloff 1987).
A number of fungi (i. e., Fusarium and Gibberella spp.) produce zearalanol, which exhibits estrogen activity. These estrogen-like compounds are frequent contaminants in cereals and may be responsible for carcinogenesis and precocious sexual development if present in quantity (Schoental 1985).
Aspergillus flavus, which grows on peanuts, soybeans, cereals, and other plants, may produce the hepatocarcinogen aflatoxin and can cause Reyes syndrome in children. Fusarium spp., also growing on cereals, can produce trichothecen toxins that cause toxic aleukia (ATA) and akakabi-byo (“red mold disease”) in Japan.
The commonly cultivated mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, may contain phenylhydrazine derivatives that have been found to be weakly mutagenic. Many other edible fungi have shown mutagenic activity (Chauhan et al. 1985); among them is the false morel, Gyrimitra esculenta, which has been found to contain 11 hydrazines, including gyromitrin - and 3 of these hydrazines are known mutagens and carcinogens (Toth, Nagel, and Ross 1982; Ames 1983; Meier-Bratschi et al. 1983).
In addition, a number of wild fungi contain poisonous molecules that can cause serious illness or death. The amount of poison varies from species to species and from strain to strain within individual species (Benedict and Brady 1966). Also, humans vary in their tolerance of fungal poisons (Simmons 1971).
Fungal toxins produce a variety of biological effects: Amanitin, phallotoxins, and gyromitrin cause kidney and liver damage; coprine and muscarine affect the autonomic nervous system; ibotenic acid, muscimol, psilocybin, and psilocin affect the central nervous system and cause gastrointestinal irritation; indeed, many of these substances and other unknown compounds found in fungi are gastrointestinal irritants (Diaz 1979; Fuller and McClintock 1986).
Several edible fungi, such as Coprinus atramen-tarius, Coprinus quadrifidus, Coprinus variegatus, Coprinus insignis, Boletus luridus, Clitocybe clavipes, and Verpa bohemica, may contain coprine (Hatfield and Schaumburg 1978). Indeed, European C. atramentarius may have as much as 160 mg of coprine per kg of fresh fungi. In the human body, coprine is hydrolyzed to l-aminocyclopropanol hydrochloride (ACP), which acts like disulfuram, a synthetic compound known as antabuse and used to treat chronic alcoholics. Antabuse and ACP irreversibly inhibit acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and prevent the catabolism of ethanol. Thus, coprine plus ethanol leads to severe intoxication when alcoholic beverages are drunk after eating coprine-con-taining fungi (Hatfield and Schaumberg 1978; Hatfield 1979).
In addition, many mushrooms contain the enzyme thiaminase, which may destroy the vitamin thiamine, leading to thiamine deficiency (Wakita 1976) - especially when the mushrooms are eaten in quantity (Rat-tanapanone 1979). Several Russula spp. may contain indophenolase, which can also be harmful to humans if eaten in large amounts (Romagnesi 1967).
Humans can become allergic to fungi (Koivikko and Savolainen 1988). Moreover, eating fava beans with mushrooms that are rich in tyrosinase may enhance the medical effect of the fava beans - known as favism - because the tyrosinase catalyzes the conversion of L-DOPA to L-DOPA-quinone (Katz and Schall 1986).
Magico-Religious Use of Fungi
As early as the eighteenth century, according to travelers’ reports, Amanita muscaria, known as the “fly agaric,” was eaten by several tribal groups (Chukchi, Koryak, Kamchadal, Ostyak, and Vogul) in eastern Siberia as an intoxicant and for religious purposes. Species of Panaeolus, Psilocybe, and Stropharia also contain hallucinogens. These fungi were eaten by the Aztecs and the Maya - and are still consumed by curanderos in some Mexican tribes - to produce hallucinations for religious purposes, to derive information for medical treatment, and to locate lost objects (Diaz 1979).
Sheldon Aaronson
This work was funded, in part, by research awards from PSC/CUNY and the Ford Foundation.
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