Egyptian natural resources The natural materials available to Egyptians in the Nile Valley and surrounding regions provided a vast array of metals, gems, and stones over the centuries. Nearby lands, easily controlled by Egyptian forces, especially in the period of the empire, held even greater resources, all of which were systematically mined or quarried by the various dynasties. These resources included:
Agate a variety of chalcedony (silicon dioxide), colored in layers of red or brown, separated by graduated shades of white to gray Agate was plentiful in Egypt from the earliest eras. It was called ka or hedj and was found in the deserts with jasper. Some agate was brought from punt and nubia (modern Sudan).
Alabaster a lustrous white or cream colored calcite (calcium carbonate), called shes by the Egyptians. Alabaster was quarried at hatnub and at other eastern Nile sites. The stone was used in jewelry making and in the construction of sarcophagi in tombs.
Amethyst a translucent quartz (silicon dioxide) that is found in various shades of violet. Called hes-men, the stone was quarried at Wadi el-Hudi near ASWAN in the Middle Kingdom Period (2040-1640 b. c.e.) and at a site northwest of ABU simbel.
Beryl a translucent, transparent yellow-green stone formed by aluminum-beryllium silicate. called wadj en bakh, the “green stone of the east,” beryl was brought from the coast of the Red sea during the Late Period.
Carnelian a translucent form of chalcedony that was available in colors from red-brown to orange. The stone was mined in the eastern and Nubian desert and was called herset. Carnelian was highly prized as rare and valuable and was used for heads, amulets, and inlays.
Chalcedony a translucent bluish white type of quartz (silicon dioxide) called herset hedji. Chalcedony was mined in the eastern desert, the baharia OASIS, and the faiyum. Some chalcedony was also found in Nubia and in the sinai.
Copper a metal mined in the Wadi Maghara and in the serabit el-Khadim of the sinai region. called hemt, copper was also found in meteorites and was then called baa en pet.
Diorite a hard igneous rock, speckled black or white. Found in ASWAN quarries, diorite was called mentet and was highly prized.
Electrum a metal popular in the New Kingdom Period (1550-1070 b. c.e.) although used in earlier times. Electrum was a naturally occurring combination of gold and silver. it was fashioned into the war helmets of the pharaohs. it was called tjam (tchem), or white gold, by the Egyptians; the Greeks called it electrum. The metal was highly prized, particularly because silver was scarce in
Skilled metal workers displayed on a painted wall using the rich metals exploited in various mines, part of Egypt's rich natural resources. (Hulton Archive.)
Egypt. Electrum was mined in Nubia and was also used to plate obelisks.
Faience a decorative material fashioned out of fired quartz paste with a glazed surface. The crushed quartz (silicon dioxide), mined at Aswan or in Nubia, was coated either blue or green. A substitute for turquoise, faience was used for many decorative objects.
Feldspar an orange semiprecious stone now called “Amazon Stone.” When feldspar was a true green in color it was called neshmet. It was mined in the desert near the Red Sea or in the Libyan desert territories.
Garnet a translucent iron, or a silicate stone, mined near the Aswan area and in some desert regions.
Garnet was called hemaget by the Egyptians and was used from the Badarian Period (c. 5500 b. c.e.) through the New Kingdom Period.
Gold the favorite metal of the Egyptians, who started mining the substance as early as the First Dynasty (2920-2770 b. c.e.). Gold was mined in the eastern deserts, especially at WADI ABBAD near edfu, and the Nubian (modern Sudanese) sites were the main sources. In later eras, other nations sent gold to Egypt as tribute. Gold was called nub or nub nefer when of the highest grade and tcham (tjam) when in the form of electrum.
Hematite an iron oxide that was opaque black or grayish black. The Egyptians called it bia and
Mined the substance in the eastern deserts and at Aswan and in the Sinai.
Jasper a quartz (silicon dioxide), available in green, yellow, and mottled shades, called khenmet or mekhenmet. Jasper was mined in the eastern deserts. The stone normally formed ISIS amulets and was used from the earliest eras.
Limestone an opaque calcium carbonate with varieties ranging from cream to yellow to pink to black. Found in the Nile hills from modern Cairo to ESNA, the stone was called hedj in the white form. White limestone was quarried in the TUREH area and was found as black in the eastern desert and pink in the desert near EDFU.
Malachite an opaque, emerald green copper carbonate found near the copper mines of Serabit el-Khadim and the wadi maghara in the Sinai. Called shesmet or wadj, malachite was also found in Nubia and in the eastern desert.
Marble a crystalline limestone quarried in the eastern desert and used for statuary and stone vessels. Marble was called ibhety or behet by the Egyptians.
Mica a pearl-like potassium-aluminum silicate with iron and magnesium. Mica can be fashioned into thin sheets and was popular in the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.). It was found in Nubia, and was called pagt or irgeb.
Obsidian a translucent volcanic glass that was probably quarried in Ethiopia (punt) or Nubia. Called menu kem when dark in color, obsidian was used for amulets and scarabs and for the eyes of statues.
Olivine a translucent magnesium iron silicate found in many Egyptian regions. Called perdjem, olivine was used for beads and decorations.
Onyx with sardonyx, varieties of chalcedony, found in the eastern desert and other Nile Valley sites. Onyx beads were used in Predynastic Periods (before 3000 b. c.e.) and became popular in the Late Period (712-332 b. c.e.).
Peridot a transparent green or yellow-green variety of olivine that was probably brought into Egypt. No mining sites are noted. Peridot was called perdjem or berget.
Porphyry an igneous rock formation of various shades. The black variety was used in early eras, and the purple variety was popular as amulets and pendants.
Quartz a hard opaque silicon dioxide quarried in Nubia and near Aswan. Called menu hedj or menu kem, quartz was used for inlays, beads, and jewelry Quartzite was found near Heliopolis and at
GEBEL EL-AHMAR.
Rock crystal a hard, glasslike quartz of silicon dioxide found in the Nile Valley between the Faiyum
And the baharia oasis and in the Sinai region. It was called menu hedj, when white.
Silver a rare and highly prized metal in Egypt, called hedj, white gold. Silver was mined as electrum, called tcham or tjam in the wadi alaki, wadi miah, and in Nubia.
Steatite a magnesium silicate, called soapstone. Steatite was found in the eastern desert from the WADI HAMMAMAT to the WADI HALFA and in Aswan. It was used extensively for scarabs and beads.
Turquoise a stone treasured by the Egyptians, found beside copper deposits in the wadi Maghara and Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai. Called mefkat, turquoise was used in all eras, with the green variety preferred.
El-Bersha A site opposite mallawi in the area of Middle Egypt where Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.) tombs were discovered. There are nomarch burials in the area. Governors’ tombs were located in the necropolis at modern sheik said, and nearby meir has burial sites of El-Bersha nomarchs as well.
Electrum A metallic material called tjam, or white gold, and occurring as a natural combination of silver and gold. Popular in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B. C.E.) era, electrum was used for the war helmets of the militarily active pharaohs. Silver was scarce in Egypt, so this natural blend was highly prized.
Elephantine (Abu, Yebu) An island at the northern end of the first cataract of the Nile near ASWAN, called Abu or Yebu by the ancient Egyptians, the island and that part of Aswan served as the capital of the first nome of Upper Egypt and the cult center of the god khnum. The Elephantine Island was also revered as the source of the spiritual Nile. One mile long and one-third of a mile wide, Elephantine contained inscriptions dating to the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.). djoser (r. 2630-2611 B. C.E.) of the Third Dynasty visited the shrine of Khnum to put an end to seven years of famine in Egypt. His visit was commemorated in a Ptolemaic Period (304-30 B. C.E.) stela, the famed famine stela at sehel. The temple personnel of philae also claimed that Djoser gave them the island for their cult center.
A NILOMETER was placed on the Elephantine Island, as others were established in the southern territories and in the Delta. Ruins from a Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 B. C.E.) structure and others from the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 B. C.E.) were discovered on the island. When ’AHMOSE of the Eighteenth Dynasty established the viceroyalty of nubia, the administrative offices of the agency were located on the Elephantine Island. Similar officials, given other names in various eras, had served in
The deities of the Elephantine and the first cataract of the Nile—Khnum, Satet, and Atet.
The same capacity in the region. The Elephantine Island was always considered militarily strategic.
A small pyramid dating to the Old Kingdom was also discovered on the island, and the Elephantine was supposedly noted for two nearby mountains, called Tor Hapi and Mut Hapi, or Krophi and Mophi. They were venerated in early times as “the Cavern of Hopi” and the “Water of Hopi.” The territory was considered “the Storehouse of the Nile” and had great religious significance, especially in connection with the god Khnum and with celestial rituals. The temple of Khnum was erected on a quay of the island and was endowed by many pharaohs.
A CALENDAR was discovered in fragmented form on the Elephantine Island, dating to the reign of TUTHMOSIS iii (1479-1425 B. C.E.) of the Eighteenth Dynasty The calendar was inscribed on a block of stone. This unique document was called the Elephantine Calendar. Another inscription was discovered on a stela at the Elephantine. This commemorated the repairs made on a fortress of the Twelfth Dynasty and honors senwosret iii (r. 1878-1841 B. C.E.). The fortress dominated the island in that era, giving it a commanding sweep of the Nile at that location.
The Elephantine Papyrus, found on the island, is a document dating to the Thirteenth Dynasty (1783-1640 B. C.E.). The papyrus gives an account of that historical period. The Elephantine temple and all of its priestly inhabitants were free of government services and taxes.
The area was called “the Door to the South” and was a starting point for trade with Nubia.
Elkab (Nekheb) A site called Nekheb by the Egyptians and one of the nation’s earliest settlements, dating to c. 6000 B. C.E. Elkab is on the east bank of the Nile, 20 miles south of esna. The site is across the river from HIERAKONPOLIS and is related to nearby Nekhen (modern Kom el-Ahmar). Predynastic palaces, garrisoned ramparts, and other interior defenses attest to the age of the site, which was sacred to the goddess NEKHEBET, the patroness of Upper Egypt.
Elkab’s citizens rose up against ’ahmose (r. 15501525 B. C.E.) when he started the Eighteenth Dynasty, and he interrupted the siege of the hyksos capital of avaris to put down the rebellion. The nomarchs of the area were energetic and independent. Their rock-cut tombs are in the northeast section of the city and display their vivacious approach to life and death. tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 B. C.E.) erected the first chapel to Nekhebet, finished by his successor amenhotep ii. The temple of Nekhebet had a series of smaller temples attached as well as a sacred lake and a necropolis. A temple honoring the god THOTH was started by ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 B. C.E.). The present Nekhebet shrine dates to the Late Period (712-332 B. C.E.). In the valley of Elkab shrines of Nubian deities were discovered, and in distant wadis a shrine to a deity named shesmetet and a temple of HATHOR and Nekhebet stand in ruins. The rock-cut tombs of ’ahmose-pen nekhebet, ’ahmose, son of ebana, and PAHERI are also on the site. Elkab also contains El-Ham-mam, called “the Bath,” which was dated to the reign of Ramesses II. His stela is still evident there. amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.) also erected a chapel there for the sacred Bark of Nekhebet.
El-Kula A site on the western shore of the Nile north of HIERAKONPOLIS and ELKAB, the remains of a step pyramid were discovered there, but no temple or offertory chapel was connected to the shrine. The pyramid dates to the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.).
El-Lisht see Lisht, el-.
The “Eloquent Peasant” of Herakleopolis A commoner named khunianupu who farmed land in the wadi NATRUN, in the desert territory beyond the western Delta, probably in the reign of khety ii (Aktoy) of the Ninth Dynasty (r. 2134-2040 b. c.e.), Khunianupu decided to take his produce to market one day and entered the district called Perfefi. There he ran afoul of Djehutinakhte or Nemtynakhte, the son of a high-ranking court official, Meri. Djehutinakhte stole Khunianupu’s donkeys and produce and then beat him. The peasant took his complaints to Rensi, the chief steward of the ruler, when local officials would not aid him. Taken before a special regional court, Khunianupu pleaded eloquently, using traditional moral values as arguments. Rensi was so impressed that he gave the transcript of the testimony to the ruler. The court and ruler promptly punished Dje-hutinakhte by taking all his lands and personal possessions and awarding them to Khunianupu.
Called “the Eloquent Peasant,” announcing to the court officials the fact that “righteousness is for eternity,” Khunianupu eventually made his way into the royal court, where he was applauded and honored. The ruler supposedly invited Khunianupu to address his officials and to recite on state occasions. The popular account of Khunianupu’s adventures and sayings was recorded in the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 b. c.e.) and is included in four New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.) papyri, now in Berlin and London. Such tales delighted the Egyptians, who appreciated the didactic texts of their literature and especially admired the independence and courage of the commoners, whether or not they were real people or fictitious characters.
Embalming See mortuary rituals.
Ennead A system of nine deities worshiped at Heliopolis during the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.), the Ennead was part of the cosmogonic or creation myths of the region. The Ennead varies according to ancient records, but the usual deities involved were Re-ATUM, shu, tefnut, geb, nut, ISIS, SET, nephthys, and osiris. In some lists Thoth or Horus are included. ptah was given an Ennead in Memphis also. The Ennead gathered at Heliopolis and influenced human affairs. All Enneads were called “Companies of Gods.”
Epagomenal days The five days at the end of the Egyptian calendar that were used to commemorate the birthdays of the gods with gala festivals and ceremonies, the epagomenal days were officially added to the Egyptian calendar by imhotep, the vizier of djoser (r. 2630-2611 b. c.e.) in the Third Dynasty Imhotep also designed the step pyramid. He used the additional time to correct the calendar, which had been in use since the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.). The original lunar calendar did not correspond to the actual rotation of the earth around the sun, thus veering steadily away from real time. The epagomenal days were added to make the necessary adjustments, although the traditional calendar was never accurate. The birthdays celebrated on these additional periods of time were: the first day, OSIRIS; second, horus; third, set; fourth, ISIS; and the fifth, nephthys. The days were actually called “the God’s Birthdays.”
The cosmological tradition associated with the epagomenal days concerns nut, the sky goddess, and
GEB, the earth god. atum, the creator, discovered that Nut and Geb were lovers and had Nut raised up to form the sky. Discovering that the goddess was pregnant, Atum said that she could give birth, but not on the traditional days of the known calendar. The god thoth, taking pity on Nut, gambled with the other deities of Egypt and won five extra days for Nut. Nut gave birth on those days, bringing Osiris, Horus, Set, Isis, and Nephthys into the world.
Eratosthenes of Gyrene (d. 194 b. c.e.) Greek scientist, astronomer, and poet
He was born c. 276 b. c.e. in cyrene, Libya. He became the chief of the library of Alexandria c. 255 b. c.e. and wrote about poetry, philosophy, literary criticism, geography, mathematics, and astronomy His Geographica and On the Measurement of the Earth were instant classics.
Eratosthenes was reportedly the first person to measure the earth’s circumference. He stated that the earth was round and assessed the circumference using geometric calculation. The length of the shadows measured at noon on the summer solstice in ALEXANDRIA and ASWAN started the calculations. Eratosthenes also mapped the world in lines of latitude and longitude. As the head of the Library of Alexandria, he tried to reform the calendar and to fix the historical dates in literature. When he went blind, Eratosthenes committed suicide by voluntary starvation c. 194 B. C.E. He died in Alexandria.
Erment (Hermonthis, lun-Mut, lun-Montu, Ar-mant) This was a site south of Thebes, called lun-Mut, “The Pillar of Mut,” or lun-Montu, “the Pillar of Montu,” in Egyptian; Hermonthis in Greek; also Armant in some lists. Erment was once the capital of the fourth nome of Upper Egypt but was replaced by Thebes as early as the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.). The god montu had a cult center at Erment, associated with the sacred bull buchis. Remains of an Eleventh Dynasty (2040-1991 b. c.e.) palace were discovered on the site. A temple from the Eighteenth Dynasty, built by Queen-Pharaoh hatshep-SUT (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.) and restored by tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.), was also found in Erment. The bucheum, the bull necropolis, is also on the site.
A major temple at Erment dates to the Middle Kingdom with later additions. nectanebo ii (r. 363-343? b. c.e.) started a similar shrine that was completed by the Ptolemies (304-30 b. c.e.). Cleopatra vii (r. 51-30 b. c.e.) and PTOLEMY XV CAESARION (r. 44-30 b. c.e.) built a mam-MISI, or birth house there, with a sacred lake.
Ernutet She was an Egyptian goddess revered in the FAIYUM, near modern Medinet el-Faiyum (crocodilopo-lis). a temple honoring Ernutet, sobek, and horus was erected there by amenemhet iii (r. 1844-1797 b. c.e.) and completed by amenemhet iv (r. 1799-1787 b. c.e.).
Erpati hati’o The ancient Egyptian term for the nobility of the NOMES or provinces of the nation, in some eras women inherited the rights and rank of this class.
Esna (lunit, Enit, Letopolis) A site 34 miles south of LUXOR in the Upper Kingdom. Tombs from the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.). Second Intermediate Period (1640-1550 b. c.e.), and New Kingdom (1550- 1070 b. c.e.) were discovered there. Esna is noted, however, for the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.) temple. It served as a cult center for the god khnum and the goddess Nebtu’u. There was also a necropolis for the sacred Nile perch (Lates niloticus) at Esna.
The temple stood at a crossroads of oasis caravans from the Nubian (modern Sudanese) region. Construction began in the reign of ptolemy iii euergetes (246-221 b. c.e.) and was completed in the mid-first century. Twenty-four columns, with various capitals, designed as imitation palms and other plants, form a stone forest in the shrine. Highly decorated, the temple of Khnum and neith (1) was adorned with Ptolemaic symbols and architectural styles. The ceilings have astronomical decorations, and crocodiles and rams figure prominently. Predynastic sites, dated to c. 13,000-10,000 B. C.E., were also found in Esna.
Essarhaddon (Assur-Akh-Iddina) (d. 669 b. c.e.) King of Assyria and ruler of Egypt
He reigned from 681 b. c.e. until his death. His Assyrian name was Assur-Akh-Iddina, which was Persian for “the God Ashur Has Given Me a Brother.” He was named the heir by King Sennacherib and inherited when Sennacherib was slain. Essarhaddon marched on the rebels who had assassinated the king and then was crowned in NINEVEH. In 657 B. C.E., he attacked the frontier outposts of Egypt and took the northern capital of Memphis. In 671 B. C.E., TAHARQA, the Egyptian ruler of the time, fled to NUBIA, abandoning his wife, amun-dyek’het, and their son, USHANAHURU, who were taken as slaves by the Assyrians. Two years later, Taharqa returned to Egypt to regain his throne. Essarhaddon died on his way to defeat Taharqa and was succeeded by his son assurbanipal.
Esye An Egyptian deity of wisdom and somewhat mysterious being, Esye was mentioned in a document from the reign of senwosret i (1971-1926 b. c.e.) in a Heliopolis temple inscription.
Eternity This ancient Egyptian concept gave impetus to the mortuary rituals and to the religious philosophy of every period on the Nile. Early in their history the people of the Nile Valley determined that the earth reflected the cosmos, a vision glimpsed nightly by the astronomer-priests and incorporated into spiritual ideals. This led to the concept of timeless order called eternity. Two basic concepts were involved in this awareness of eternity: (1) that eternity was changeless existence and (2) that eternity was continued renewal. Time was thus viewed in terms both linear and cyclical, an important element in the reenactment of ancient ceremonies. The deity amun represented changeless existence, and OSIRIS depicted daily renewal, thus uniting the concepts in cultic terms.
Egyptians feared eternal darkness and unconsciousness in the afterlife because both of these conditions belied the orderly transmission of light and movement evident in the universe. They understood that death was in reality the gateway to eternity. The Egyptians thus esteemed the act of dying and venerated the structures and the rituals involved in such human adventure. heh, called Huh in some eras, the god of eternity, was one of the original gods of the ogdoad at hermopolis and represented eternity—the goal and destiny of all human life in Egyptian religious beliefs, a stage of existence in which mortals could achieve eternal bliss.
Eternity was an endless period of existence that was not feared by any Egyptian because it carried with it everlasting renewal. one ancient name for it was nuheh, but eternity was also called the shenu, which meant round, hence everlasting or unending, and became the form of the royal cartouches. The astral term “Going to One’s ka,” a reference to the astral being that accompanied humans through earthly life, was used in each age to express dying. The hieroglyph for a corpse was translated as “participating in eternal life.” The tomb was “the Mansion of Eternity” and the deceased was an akh, a transformed spirit. The pyramid texts from the Old Kingdom Period (2575-2134 b. c.e.) proclaimed that the akh went to the sky as the mortal remains went into the earth.
While the concept of eternity provided the impetus for the rituals and ceremonies of the mortuary rites, the arts and architecture benefited from the same vision of the afterlife. The surviving monuments of Egypt are mostly related to mortuary rituals because they were made of stone and raised as insignias of the Egyptian contemplation of eternity. The pyramids rising out of the sand at giza were symbols of everlasting power and transformation in death. The elaborate tombs and temples were introductions into the supernatural ways of the realm beyond the grave, called tuat in passage. This concept was also the foundation of the role of the rulers of Egypt. Each pharaoh was the god re while he lived upon the earth. At his death, however, he became OSIRIS, “the First of the Westerners,” the “Lord of the Dead.” Thus rulers were divine and destined for eternal happiness. UNIS (r. 2356-2323 b. c.e.), of the Fifth Dynasty, declared in his tomb in saqqara that “the stars would tremble when he dawned as a soul.” Eternity was the common destination of each man, woman, and child in Egypt. Such a belief infused the vision of the people, challenging their artists to produce soaring masterpieces and providing them with a certain exuberance for life, unmatched anywhere in the ancient world.
Euclid (fl. third century b. c.e.) “Father of Mathematics” Euclid was an Alexandrian scholar who served in the reign of ptolemy i soter (304-284 b. c.e.). He is best known for his Elements of Geometry, which he presented to Ptolemy. When the ruler declared that the work was too long and too difficult, Euclid stated that the pharaohs had “royal roads” in Egypt but that geometry could not be reached with speed or ease. Euclid systematized the entire body of mathematics, developing axiomatic proofs. He founded mathematical schools in Alexandria and was esteemed internationally.
Eurydice (fl. third century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period
She was the consort of ptolemy i soter (r. 304-284 B. C.E.) and the daughter of King Antipater of Macedonia. In her retinue, however, was a woman named Berenice (1), reportedly a half sister of Ptolemy I. He set Eurydice aside and disinherited her children, Ptolemy Ceraunus, Ptolemais, Lysander, and Meleager, in favor of Berenice (1)’s offspring.
Execration This was the ritualized destruction of objects or depictions of individuals, especially in Egyptian tombs or mortuary temples and cultic shrines. By demolishing or damaging such depictions or texts, the power of the deceased portrayed was diminished or destroyed. There are many surviving examples of execration in tombs, especially in the New Kingdom Period (1550-1070 B. C.E.). The images of Queen-Pharaoh hat-SHEPSUT (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.) were destroyed or vandalized at DEIR EL-BAHRI and in other shrines. The entire capital of akhenaten (r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.) was razed. The tomb of aya (2) (1323-1319 b. c.e.) was savaged. The deceased’s power in the afterlife was traditionally thought to be destroyed by such vandalism.
Execration texts were inscribed as well on pottery or figurines and listed cities and individuals in Palestine and southern Syria as enemies. Some 1,000 execration texts survive, dating from the old Kingdom (2575-2134 B. C.E.) to CLEOPATRA VII (r. 51-30 B. C.E.). One discovered dates to c. 1900 b. c.e. and curses Askalon, Rehab, and Jerusalem. Two other such texts, made perhaps a century later, curse the cities of Acshaf, Acre, Ashtaroth, Hazor, lyon, Laish, Mishal, Qanah, Qederesh, and Jerusalem.
Exemption decrees Documents used in various eras of ancient Egypt to exempt designated temple complexes from taxes, corvee labor, and other civic responsibilities, the most famous of these decrees were issued in koptos.
Extradition A clause included in the hittite alliance between ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) of the Nineteenth Dynasty and the hittites, it provided that persons of rank or importance would be returned to their own rulers if they tried to flee from one territory to the other to escape punishment for their crimes. This clause, sophisticated and remarkably advanced for this period, exemplified the complex judicial aspects of Egyptian law in that period.
Eye of Horus See horus eye.
Eye of Re This was a complex tradition concerning the eye of he sun deity, viewed as a physical component of the god and functioning as well as a separate spiritual entity. The goddess ISIS, along with hathor and sekhmet, were associated with this tradition, and the cobra, wad-jet, was also part of the symbolism. amulets and other mystical ornaments employed the eye of Re as a powerful insignia of protection.
World History
