History

The idiosyncratic features of Ancient Egyptian culture were its inclusiveness, adaptation to change, and apparently paradoxical conservatism. These characteristics combined to create one of the longest-running religions of humankind. Although it is often left out of discussions concerning the great religions of mankind, Ancient Egyptian religion lasted for well over three millennia and in fact it continues to engage many spiritually and intellectually. Changes did occur during Pharaonic times, but the fundamental themes and values that can be recognized as quintessentially Egyptian continued from the Predynastic Period through the Roman Period (see Frankfurter ch. 28) and survivals can even be found in Coptic Christianity. These included the emphasis on the need for continual maintenance of order over chaos - a balance known as maat, the belief in the numinous nature of the world, and the hope of living for eternity in the afterlife. These religious beliefs were embedded in Pharaonic society and affected life for all Egyptians, from the poorest to the divine king himself.

The earliest religious beliefs of the Egyptians are unclear, but it is clear that religion was firmly rooted in the culture and society even before the Pharaonic period. Male, female, and animal figurines made from stone, clay, wood, ivory, and even gold found in domestic and funerary have been variously interpreted by scholars as representations or representatives of deities or royalty, devices to encourage fertility, or votive offerings. The earliest ceremonial shrine found in the Predynastic site of Hierakonpolis incorporates most of the same architectural elements that would appear in later temples through the centuries. Although we cannot know for certain, it is likely that its main function was also the same as that of later temples - and that was not to serve as a place of worship for the general populace, but rather as a dwelling place for the god as well as the nexus for economic activity for the entire community (see Spencer ch. 14). The site has also revealed the remains of rituals

Likely associated with deities such as Hathor that are well known from later times, as well as evidence for early mummification.

The concept of an afterlife epitomized by the Osirian cycle of myths became well-established in the Old Kingdom, as did the notion of the king being the son of the sun-god Re. Throughout Egyptian history, the Osirian cycle worked in tandem with the Solar cycle to provide models for the fundamental elements of Egyptian culture and religion (Quirke 1992). The myth of the death of Osiris at the hands of his brother Seth, and his subsequent mummification and resurrection with the help of his sister-wife Isis offered the hope to all Egyptians that they too could perform the same rituals and be resurrected. The journeys of Isis with Horus, the infant son that she had conceived with her newly-resurrected husband Osiris, and her constant fearless protection of him from the many dangers provided a model for the king’s own protection of Egypt, as well as for healing in general. Once Horus as royal heir had grown, his battles against Seth over the rulership of Egypt and his final ascendency over the deity of chaos provided an explanation for the nature of kingship. The cyclical nature of the world as well as the constant threat of chaos was elucidated by the repeated rising of the triumphant sun-god, his journey in the day to provide light and air to all people, his setting in the west during the night where he would wage battle with chaos, and his regular reappearance once again in the morning.

In the Old Kingdom through most of the Middle Kingdom, formal representations of worship featured the king in the role of worshipper to the god and intermediary for his people. The dead could also be approached through letters and perhaps rituals. While material evidence shows that gods were also approached, this was not expressed formally in texts. Aside from the Calendars of Days, there is also little evidence of divination through this time. However, it is clear that by the time of the New Kingdom, oracles were in use by royalty and commoners alike. From this time on, prayers also abound that provide written expression of direct appeals from individuals to the state gods in a format that had previously been restricted to formal royal texts. Many of these were directed to the god Amun as one’s personal savior and guide, a champion of personal justice, mercy, and benefaction. The perception that the god was in charge of individual destiny perhaps also helps to explain the increased use of divination that was to become increasingly widespread. But personal worship and prayer to other deities also continued, and private shrines, figurines, votive offerings, amulets, spells, and hymns abound. Even during the Amarna period, although the pharaoh Akhenaten may have promoted the worship of the Aten and himself over other gods, material remains attest to the continuation of popular religious beliefs and practices directed to many of the same gods who had been the focus of appeals for centuries. The Ramesside Age gave rise to new forms of expressions of devotion to the gods and new methods of divination that continued. By the time of the Late Period the impact and reliance on the main gods for matters ranging from royal legitimation to micro-management of an individual’s everyday safety was manifest in the abundance of popular cults.

Egyptian religion was not monolithic, and changes occurred in both practices and beliefs that are manifest both in the textual and non-textual archaeological remains. Nevertheless, the core principles remained steady through the millennia, and it is these which are the focus of the rest of this chapter.