Conclusion

The issues we have been discussing find a dramatic culmination in the description of the death of St. Daniel the Stylite in his late fifth-century Life.

But the people demanded that the holy man be shown to them before his burial, and in consequence an extraordinary tumult arose. For by the archbishop’s orders the plank was stood upright - the body had been fixed to it so that it could not fall - and thus, like an icon, the holy man was displayed to all on every side; and for many hours the people all looked at him and also with cries and tears besought him to be an advocate with God on behalf of them all. (99, tr. Dawes and Baynes)

Like Constantius entering Rome, Daniel is transformed into an image of himself to magnify his power. In doing so, the archbishop reassures the crowd that Daniel’s power will live on, so they beseech the saint in or on his icon - literally - to continue his work. Though the actual relic of the saint’s body lies before them, they enhance its power by turning it into an image, adding the power of representation to the saint’s power of intercession.

The visuality of the culture of the Later Roman Empire provides a vital context to understanding early Christianity. From the sophisticated and abstract experiments in verbal and visual representation of the literati to the visual appropriation of texts, Christianity was immersed in a culture characterized by ways of seeing and modes of representation significantly different from our own. It appears that a religion of the Word of God, Image of God, and Word made Flesh, one that developed a ‘‘firm commitment to the visible’’ (Rousseau 2002: 15), did not simply and fortuitously lend itself to this culture but rather was very much the product of it.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

Presenting a bibliographical guide can be difficult when dealing with an interdisciplinary topic. Some readers will have no previous experience, while others will possess expertise in some fields but not others. Here I suggest, in the limited space available, various fundamental and comprehensive works useful for those new to a given field. These should be considered good places to start but by no means a complete introduction.

With regard to images and art history, Elsner 1995 offers a good introduction not only to the period, but also to current trends and controversies in art history and the relation of image and text. This last topic is the particular focus of two fine volumes: Goldhill and Osborne 1994 and Elsner 1996, each containing a series of essays on specific topics. For those unsure of how to think about images and history, L’Orange 1965 [1958] offers a helpful model, though contemporary scholars will argue with some of his specific interpretations. Similarly, Burke 2001 offers a very useful and up-to-date discussion of the use of images as historical evidence, though not at all limited to antiquity. Those interested in the theoretical aspects of art history may consult Mitchell 1994 and Belting 2003. For those new to early Christian art, Jensen 2000 presents a very accessible introduction; Grabar 1968 remains the most comprehensive account, though now dated in a few respects. In the broader realm of Christianity and culture, Rousseau 2002 is very accessible with excellent bibliographical notes, while Averil Cameron 1991 offers a more conventional scholarly approach.