The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Israel Exploration Society
Introduction
At the end of the First Temple period (the 8th-6th centuries b. c.e.), the settled and fortified area of Jerusalem first grew beyond the City of David and the Temple Mount to the area of the Southwestern Hill (see summary in Geva 2003b: 504-24). Not long afterward, the city began spreading onto the hills to the north—tracts of land located within the present-day Muslim and Christian Quarters of the Old City—up to the area where tombs have been found just north of the Damascus Gate (see summaries in Barkay 2000: 255-66; Barkay et al. 1994).
Archaeological evidence for settlement in this northern sector of Jerusalem at the end of the First Temple period consists primarily of potsherds retrieved in various excavations in the area (see summary in Barkay 1985: 11-44; Wightman 1993: 99; for new excavations, see Baruch and Avni 2001: 96). The finds attest that this sector was quite sparsely populated and unfortified. It was of an agricultural nature, though stone-quarrying activity also took place here (Broshi and Barkay 1985: 109-19; Gibson and Taylor 1994: 11-17, 52-60).
The settlement of northern Jerusalem was destroyed at the time of the conquest of Jerusalem in 587/6 b. c.e. Along with the Southwestern Hill, it lay desolate for more than four centuries. The Persian period city extended over the more limited, long-established area of the city on the Southeastern Hill. These were the bounds of the city during the Early Hellenistic period as well (the 3rd-2nd centuries b. c.e.).
In the second half of the 2nd century b. c.e, the city witnessed renewed growth and expansion under Hasmonean rule. The Southwestern Hill was resettled and refortified with the construction of the “First Wall” (Geva 2003b: 526-35). In addition to the growth of the residential quarter on that hill, the Second Temple period city also slowly spread once more into areas to the north of the First Wall, the sector previously settled at the end of the First Temple period. However, in contrast to that period, the northern sector at the end of the Second Temple period extended beyond what is today the Old City. The resulting urbanized quarter, extending along the Upper (northern) Tyropoeon Valley, justified the construction of the “Second Wall.” Additional expansion northward necessitated the construction of the “Third Wall,” which fortified a substantial area in northern Jerusalem. With the construction of the Second and Third Walls, an extremely large area of around 1200 dunams
Fig. 1. Map of Jerusalem and the "New City" at the end of the Second Temple period (based on the map published in Geva 1993: 718).
(or about 300 acres) was added to the more than 600 dunams enclosed within the First Wall and Temple Mount. By the end of the Second Temple period, the intramural area of Jerusalem extended over more than 1,800 dunams.
The northern sector of Second Temple period Jerusalem was traversed by two valleys, descending from north to south, creating three hills. The eastern hill is situated between the Kidron Valley to the east and the Bezetha Valley to the west. West of the Bezetha valley and east of the Tyropoeon Valley is the central hill. The Antonia Fortress and the northwestern corner of the Temple Mount enclosure were constructed on the southern reaches of the hill. The Tyropoeon descends on a gradual slope southward, consisting of a broad, shallow basin in its upper part (north of the Old City), and becoming narrower and deeper as it continues southward (within the Old City). To its west is the Northwestern Hill, the highest part of the northern sector. It is bordered on the west by the upper reaches of the Hinnom Valley. The northern border of the sector was marked by the El-Joz Valley, which descends eastward toward the Kidron. The topography of this area undoubtedly influenced the nature and extent of the settlement area, as well as the course of the Third Wall, the fortification around northern Jerusalem at the end of the Second Temple period.
In this article, I will draw on archaeological discoveries in an attempt to trace the chronological development and urbanization processes in the northern hills of Jerusalem at the end of the Second Temple period. I have no intention of revisiting the issue of the course and date of the Second and Third Walls, which has been discussed from various viewpoints by many (see Simons 1952: 282-344; Avi-Yonah 1968; Geva 1993: 736, 744-45; Wightman 1993: 159-84).
The discussion will rely on published excavation results, particularly ceramic finds. Other small finds of the Second Temple period (coins, stone, etc.) will be noted when relevant. Unfortunately, many excavations have thus far been published only in brief preliminary reports that do not present ceramics or other finds; these will be noted only in cases when defined chronological contexts within the Second Temple period have been reported. The study cannot take into consideration the quantitative aspect of ceramic finds, because no statistics are mentioned in the published material.
The published Second Temple period pottery from the northern sector of Jerusalem now warrants a typological-chronological reconsideration (based on published drawings), given the recent publications of Judean pottery-types of the Hasmonean and Herodian periods from the Jewish Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem (Geva 2003a; Geva and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006), Jericho (Bar Nathan 2002), and Masada (Bar Nathan 2006). A comparative analysis can now be carried out in an attempt to better ascertain the dates of the finds retrieved from the northern sector of Jerusalem and perhaps to reach conclusions on the urban development of the sector at the end of the Second Temple period.
The Archaeological Finds in the Northern Sector of Jerusalem
Over the past few decades, there have been numerous archaeological excavations in the northern sector of Second Temple period Jerusalem (the Christian and Muslim Quarters in the northern part of the Old City and areas just north of the Old City). Nevertheless, the number of excavations in this part of the city, as well as the total area excavated, is far smaller than that of other areas of the city—the City of David, the Ophel, and the Southwestern Hill. Most sites in the northern sector are quite limited in size, generally restricted to areas uncovered for the construction of modern buildings. Archaeological activity has thus largely focused on the external side of the northern Old City wall and along the northern line of the Third Wall. Nonetheless, the archaeological discoveries to be summarized below do allow us to grasp the developmental process of the urbanization of the northern sector in the Second Temple period.
The Second Temple period layers in the northern sector were often deposited directly on bedrock, though occasionally on a First Temple period occupational layer. Excavators in the area have generally encountered artificial earth fills, and only rarely architectural remains, which are detailed below. It is assumed here that the Second Temple period fills accumulated as debris over time or were moved from the immediate vicinity and deposited by man or nature. To the best of our knowledge, the fills yielding artifacts were not brought from considerable distances, as part of earthworks for construction, for example, or for agricultural purposes. Instead, the Second Temple period finds were part of localized accumulations of debris resulting from human domestic, agricultural, or industrial activity. Some finds unquestionably related to stone-quarrying, which was quite common in the northern sector of Second Temple period Jerusalem, as is evidenced by the quarries from the period exposed along the line of the Third Wall (Ben-Arieh and Netzer 1974: 97-98; Tzaferis et al. 2000: 287; Sklar-Parnes et al. 2006: 12*-13*) or those from the First Temple period that continued in use in the Second Temple period (for a summary, see Gibson and Taylor 1994: 51-63).
Of the published architectural and ceramic finds from various excavations in the northern sector of Jerusalem, those relevant to the discussion here are surveyed below. The excavations are divided into two groups: those whose ceramics and other finds have been published, and those whose finds are mentioned only in preliminary reports, requiring us to rely on the dating provided in the reports. Within these groups, excavations are mentioned from south to north—from within the Old City to areas north of it. In some cases, where necessary, I have revised the published dates given for some Second Temple period ceramics based on renewed typological analysis. As stated, this study will use ceramics to trace the urban development of Jerusalem's Second Temple period northern sector. I have thus attempted to identify the earliest Second Temple period ceramic types recovered from the various sites.
Excavations With Published Ceramics
Church of the Redeemer, the Muristan
A few pottery sherds dated by the excavator to the Persian period were found (Vriezen 1994: Pl. V.1), though most of the published Second Temple period pottery dates to the Hellenistic and Roman periods (Vriezen 1994: Pls. VI.1-VI.7, VI.10, IX.1-IX.2: 1-11). Based on my renewed analysis of the pottery typology of these periods, only a few specimens are attributable to the Hellenistic period (the 3rd-2nd centuries b. c.e.), a larger number to the 1st century b. c.e., and the vast majority to the 1st century c. e.
El-Wad Street (Opposite the Third Station of the Via Dolorosa)
The corner of a late First Temple or Hellenistic period structure and Second Temple period pottery sherds were revealed under the pavement stones of the eastern cardo of Aelia Capitolina. Only a few sherds date to the late Hasmonean period (1st century b. c.e.), while most are characteristic of the Herodian period, primarily the 1st century c. e. (Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2007: 193-200, figs. 3-4).
The External (Northern) Face of Damascus Gate
Uncovered inside a cistern along the outer (northern) face of the western tower of the Damascus Gate were two courses of a wall, built of large masonry with drafted margins, typical of the Herodian period (Hamilton 1944: 25-26, pl. VI). There is a dispute among scholars over the identity and significance of this fragmentary wall from the Second Temple period (for a summary of the opinions, see Geva and Ba-hat 1998: 228). The remains of two terrace walls, fragments of floors, and Second Temple period pottery from the Hasmonean and primarily the Herodian periods (1st centuries b. c.e. and c. e.) were exposed in later excavations at the site. All were found in lower earth layers (Wightman 1989: 99-100; and see Chart III; pls. 1-2; 25:9-14; 26-29); the ceramic material presented on these plates is mixed, including a few Iron Age sherds but mostly from the Second Temple period. Many late Second Temple period sherds were also mixed in with later layers. A few Persian period sherds were also reported (Wightman 1989: 99, s. 26:10, 29:15).
Based on my revised typological analysis of these sherds, it emerges that only a few are characteristic of the Persian and the Early Hellenistic periods; slightly more are of the 1st century b. c.e.; while the majority are of the Herodian period, namely the 1st century c. e.
Along the Old City Wall, East and West of Herod's Gate
Earth layers on bedrock in two excavation areas (Soundings B, C) yielded Second Temple period pottery (Hamilton 1944: 29-30, 43-45, figs. 14, 20). They appear to me to date to the 1st century c. e. Later limited excavations in the area unearthed more Second Temple period pottery, together with coins of Agrippa I (Hadashot Archaeologiot 1976: 33).
North of the Northeastern Corner of the Old City
Pottery from the Late Hellenistic (the 1st century b. c.e.) and Early Roman periods (the 1st century c. e.) was uncovered at the Rockefeller Museum (Zilberbord 2005: fig. 5:2-6, 9). An examination of the pottery reveals that it is basically a Herodian assemblage, with the vast majority dating to the 1st century c. e. Discovered west of the Rockefeller Museum were the remains of a Second Temple period quarry that contained sherds dated to the Early Roman period (Abu Raya 2000: 68*, fig. 133:29). More specifically, the finds should be dated to the 1st century c. e.
The "Opus Reticulatum Building," Northwest of Damascus Gate
A few Herodian sherds were published from the excavation of the “opus reticulatum building,” which is suggested to have been built during the reign of Herod (Netzer and Ben-Arieh 1983: 171-72, fig. 5:1-11).
The Northern Line of the Third Wall
Excavations conducted on the outer face of the central segment of the northern line of the “Third Wall” unearthed 1st-century-c. E. pottery (Hamrick 1985: 219-20, fig. 81:2-30). Uncovered on the inner side of the wall was a chamber built against it, containing pottery of the 1st century c. e. (Ben-Arieh and Netzer 1974: 102-5, fig. 4:1-16). Pottery of that century was also exposed in another excavation on the inner side of the wall (Abu Raya 1998: fig. 164:2-4).
Safra Square, North of the Northwestern Corner of the Old City
One sherd of the 1st century c. e. has been published from this excavation (Maier and Bahat 2004: fig. 13:4). Also found at the site was a Yehud stamp of a 2nd century b. c.e. type and an imported Greek stamped amphora handle of a type characteristic of the 2nd-1st centuries b. c.e. (Ariel 2004: 183-84, fig. 14), both somewhat unexpected discoveries considering that no Hellenistic layer was reported at the site. These finds can be related to a site excavated by O. Sion in 2008, in the western part of the Russian Compound (north of the line of the Third Wall). Pottery of the Hellenistic to Roman period (2nd century B. c.E.-1st century c. e.) was found (Sion pers. comm.).
Excavations Without Published Ceramics
The "Ohel Yitzhak" Building along Southern Ha-Gai Street
The remains of a monumental staircase of the Herodian period were discovered, descending toward the Temple Mount. Nearby were wall and floor fragments of the same period (Barbe and De'adle 2006: 19*-21*).
Church of St. Anne, North of the Temple Mount and Near Lion's Gate
A pair of large rock-cut reservoirs, identified as the Bethesda-Probatica pools (John 5:2-4), and a number of adjacent hewn installations have been exposed in the compound of the Church of St. Anne. The installations are the remains of a pagan healing complex originating in the Hasmonean period and used throughout the Second Temple period; alterations and additions were carried out in the Late Roman period (for a summary, see Benoit 1968: 53*-57*; for a bibliography, see Gibson 2005: 287 n. 29). The results of the various excavations at the site are now being prepared for final publication. It seems that the Bethesda pools were first built during the reign of Herod; the adjacent remains are the ground-floor rooms of a sizeable and elaborate structure (or structures) of the 1st century c. e., which included rock-cut cellars, vaulted rooms, cisterns, and a stepped and plastered miqveh (Gibson 2005: 285-88, especially nn. 29-30). The fills also yielded relatively few sherds of the 1st century c. e. (Gibson pers. comm.).
The Muristan, the Christian Quarter
A thick earth layer containing mixed sherds of the Iron Age to the Late Roman period was uncovered at the bottom of the excavation site (Area C). Second Temple period pottery dates to the 1st century c. e. (Kenyon 1964: 14-16; 1974; 229-30).
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Christian Quarter
Some “Early Roman” sherds from excavations within the church complex have been published in a photograph (Corbo 1981; photo 25). A few are diagnostic, identifiable as characteristically 1st-century-c. E. vessels. No Second Temple period finds have been reported from excavations within the Chapel of St. Vartan in the church. Some building stones with drafted margins and a protruding boss, characteristic of the Second Temple period, were found in secondary use. It has been suggested that the stones likely originated from a structure of that period in the vicinity, perhaps the Second Wall (Broshi and Barkay 1985; 123-24).
East of Herod's Gate, on the Inner Side of the Old City Wall
Hasmonean finds were uncovered in an earth layer on bedrock (Baruch and Avni 2001; 96). The main remains are three wall fragments, built on different terraces, and an abundance of ceramics of the 1st century c. e. (Baruch and Avni 2000; 57-61; Avni et al. 2001; 77*-78*). A few Second Temple period sherds from these excavations have been illustrated in an unpublished M. A. thesis, though the poor quality of the drawings does not allow for a more precise typological distinction (Weksler-Bdolah 2003; 69-70).
The Northwestern Corner of the Old City
Excavations on the interior side of the northwestern corner of the Old City wall revealed 1st-century-c. E. pottery deposited in later fills (Weksler-Bdolah 2000; 202; 2006a; fig. 3;7-8).
The Northern Line of the Third Wall
On bedrock within the central segment of the northern line of the Third Wall was an archaeological layer in which the corner of a room and pottery sherds of the 1st centuries b. c.e. and c. e. were found. Most of the finds are dated by the excavators to the First Revolt (Sklar-Parnes et al. 2006; 11*-13*, fig. 3).
Outside of the Northwestern Corner of the Old City
Late layers including pottery of the 1st century c. e. were encountered (Bahat and Ben-Ari 1976; 100; Weksler-Bdolah 2006b; fig. 2;1, 4-6, 8-9).
North of the Old City Wall
Herodian-period sherds were uncovered in a number of other places north of the Old City wall (Kloner 2001; 108*-9*, Site nos. 334, 336).
Summary and Conclusions
The excavations in the northern sector of Jerusalem revealed a variety of Second Temple period remains, as demonstrated by the above survey of the excavation results. The findings include architectural remains, pottery and stone vessels, and coins. Although the evidence is far from complete—for reasons presented above—it does allow for the following preliminary conclusions.
The primary structural remains from the northern sector of Jerusalem were exposed along the Bezetha Valley. Also found were chambers along the Third Wall and terrace walls originally built for agricultural purposes in the area of the Damascus Gate in the Upper Tyropoeon Valley (and perhaps also the corner of the structure revealed in the Tyropoeon, opposite the Third Station of the Via Dolorosa, possibly of the Second Temple period). The impression is that the Second Temple period archaeological layers along the Bezetha and Upper Tyropoeon Valleys (including the Damascus Gate area) accumulated to a greater depth than those in the area of the Third Wall, the northern boundary of Jerusalem at the time.
Pottery often constitutes the only find from the Second Temple period in the northern sector of Jerusalem. Occasionally, such pottery was recovered within earth fills dated to that period, though often it was retrieved from mixed contexts deposited in later periods. Only a few sites yielded no Second Temple period finds whatsoever.
A meager amount of early Second Temple period (Persian and Early Hellenistic) pottery was uncovered in the Church of the Redeemer and Damascus Gate area, insufficient to influence our understanding of the development of the city. The pottery likely reflects a localized occupation related to seasonal agricultural activity (for an identical interpretation of finds on the Southwestern Hill, see Tushingham 1985: 33-38; Geva 2003b; 524-26). Minimal pottery from the end of the Hasmo-nean and beginning of the Herodian periods (the 1st century c. e.) was found along the Upper Tyropoeon (within the Old City) and Bezetha Valleys. It thus seems that this pottery is concentrated just to the north of and close to the First Wall and Temple Mount.
The overwhelming majority of pottery from the northern sector of Jerusalem dates to the later part of the Herodian period, the 1st century c. e. Most, if not all, of the building remains, as well as most of the coins, are also of this period. Furthermore, typical Herodian stoneware was unearthed at most of these sites. To sum up, the earliest finds from the Second Temple period in sites within the Old City are dated to the Persian or, in most cases, to the Hellenistic period, while the earliest finds from sites to the north of the Old City are of the Herodian period (1st century c. e.).
An archaeologically based reconstruction of the urban development of the northern sector of Second Temple period Jerusalem demonstrates that the first substantial phase of settlement took place sometime in the 1st century b. c.e. along the Tyropoeon and Bezetha Valleys, north of and close to the First Wall and the Temple Mount. These two valleys, which descend southward toward the city, allowed for terraced agriculture and the easy storage and conveyance of water and served as foci of settlement activity. The initial center of settlement activity was in the Upper Tyropoeon Valley (where some pottery from the Persian and Early Hellenistic periods was found as well), presumably chosen for its suitable topography and location just west of the Temple Mount and near the domestic quarter on the Southwestern Hill. Settlement activity was likely bolstered by the added security provided by the earlier Baris and later Antonia Fortress northwest of the Temple Mount. The construction of the Second Wall is further evidence of the development and demographic growth of this part of the city ( J. W. 5.4.2 §146; 5.4.3 §158). The wall was certainly constructed at some point in the 1st century b. c.e., though the lack of specific historical evidence and the fact that no clear remains of the wall were uncovered make it difficult to establish whether it was built by the Hasmo-neans or Herod. The meager and fragmentary finds discussed in this article do not help resolve the matter. The common view is that the Second Wall extended all the way up to the location of the Damascus Gate (Geva 1993: map on p. 718), though it possibly followed a shorter line (Ma'oz 1985: 51-53), one based on topographical and strategic considerations. The Tyropoeon markets, the Hasmonean Tunnel, and other installations in the area certainly influenced the course of the wall (for summaries on the Second Wall, see Avi-Yonah 1968; Geva 1993: 736; Levine 2002: 106-11). The main market of the northern sector of Jerusalem was located in the Tyropoeon from the early days of the Second Temple period (perhaps even the end of the First Temple period). Its importance as a commercial center rose with the building of the Second Wall and subsequently increased through the end of the Second Temple period ( J. W. 5.8.1 §331). Along this part of the Tyropoeon Valley passed the Hasmonean Tunnel, which conveyed runoff water from a reservoir located somewhere in the northern basin of the Tyropoeon southward toward the northern part of the Temple Mount (Bahat 2000: 185-88; for a view attributing the tunnel to the First Temple period, see Meshel 2000). The tunnel is the only unequivocal archaeological remain from pre-Herodian times in the northern sector of Second Temple period Jerusalem. The quarrying of the tunnel was a vital component in the water supply system of the city in that period. Constantly safeguarding it was likely to have required permanent occupational presence in this northern part of the city.
Another focal point of settlement in the northern sector was the Bezetha Valley, north of the Temple Mount, where the largest concentration of Herodian building remains in the northern sector has been uncovered. A sizeable and important public reservoir was built at the base of the valley sometime prior to the construction of the Third Wall (John 5:2-4), apparently during the reign of Herod. Settlement activity in the Bezetha Valley area was accelerated by its location next to the Temple Mount and the presence of the reservoir there.
The northward expansion of Second Temple period Jerusalem did not cease with the construction of the Second Wall. Josephus mentions in regard to the construction of the Third Wall that crowded living conditions within the city had led to extramural growth ( J. W. 5.4.2 §§148-49). Jerusalem was bounded by the deep valleys surrounding it: the Kidron to the east and the Hinnom to the south and west. Thus, the only hospitable terrain left to be developed lay to the north, beyond the lines of the First and Second Walls and the Temple Mount. The archaeological finds indicate that the area north of the present-day Old City was first populated only in the 1st century c. e. Over time, the need arose for the Third Wall, its construction initiated by Agrippa I (Ant. 19.7.2 §§326-27; J. W. 2.11.6 §218; 5.4.2-3 §§147-59). The Third Wall enclosed a far larger area in the northern sector than that fortified by the Second Wall in an attempt to provide maximum security for an area with no significant natural defensive features. It appears to have been built to provide for the everyday security of the residents of the northern sector and also for military defense. The bold initiative was ended by the emperor Claudius, however, and completed hastily only during the First Revolt against Rome. The relative political quiet of the 1st century c. e. before the revolt, the added security provided with the construction of the Third Wall, and the increased economic support of Agrippa I in Jerusalem encouraged demographic growth in the northern sector of the city, the sole remaining area suitable for urban expansion (Levine 2002: 285-311). The 1st-century c. e. demographics of the sector likely consisted of Jerusalemites who had moved from more crowded areas of the city, new arrivals who came to the city from outlying areas to take advantage of the city's burgeoning economy, and foreigners who settled in the city due to the encouragement of Agrippa I (Ant. 19.7.3 §§328-31).
Josephus calls the northern sector of Jerusalem the “New City” or “Bezetha” ( J. W. 5.4.2 §§149-51). The two names were used synonymously to describe this area of Jerusalem during the period, though it seems likely that Bezetha was an earlier geographic term originally referring to the area north of the Temple Mount only (see Levine 2002: 337-40). The Bezetha quarter is said to have stood on the “Fourth Hill” of Second Temple period Jerusalem, which, according Josephus, was located north of the Temple Mount ( J. W. 5.4.2 §149). With the northward expansion of the city and the construction of the Third Wall, the Bezetha quarter was included within the “New City” (Baruch and Avni 2000: 52-55). It seems that the more inclusive name for the northern urban sector was the “New City.” It included the markets contained within the Second Wall, the Bezetha Valley, and the vast area to the north, enclosed by the Third Wall. The archaeological finds attest that this latter, northernmost area—beyond the Second Wall—was the last to be inhabited. It was populated primarily in the Herodian period (specifically, the 1st century c. e.). The evidence thus corroborates Josephus' account. The growth likely did create a halachic problem related to the presence there of Jewish burials. No Second Temple period burials are known from the area within the Third Wall, perhaps because all were moved (together with any of the First Temple period) when the area was settled and fortified (Kloner and Zissu 2007).
The archaeological remains from the large area north of the Old City are particularly sparse, bearing witness to a lightly populated sector demarcated by the Third Wall. Most of the land was likely used for agricultural cultivation (Wightman 1989: 100; Geva and Bahat 1998: 223-29). The northern sector contained one of the pilgrim camping areas for the annual festivals; it is perhaps the “plain” mentioned in this context (War 2.1.3 §12; 2.3.1 §44). The political and economic center of Jerusalem remained in the vicinity of the Temple Mount and on the Southwestern Hill, also known as the “Upper City.” Most of the city's populace lived in the Upper and Lower Cities, with only a relatively small number residing in the northern sector (Geva 2007: 56-58). With the quelling of the revolt against Rome, the development of this new area of Jerusalem came to a quick end before its urbanization had crystallized.
Subsequently, the southern part of the area once enclosed by the Second and Third Walls (the northern Old City) continued to be included within the city's fortifications. The northern part of the area (north of the Old City), on the other hand, would forever remain an extramural area. Ecclesiastical structures were built there in the Byzantine period. It was deserted in the Early Islamic period, and built anew only in modern times.
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