Historical Background: General
While the eastern Mediterranean and Near East were under the rule of Alexander's successors, the western Mediterranean was caught up in a struggle between two powers: Rome and Carthage. According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 B. C.E., when a group of villages by the Tiber River united under the rule of a king. In 509 B. C.E., the last king was expelled and the Roman Republic was founded. Rome soon embarked on a campaign of expansion, first annexing adjacent territories (including Etruria [modern Tuscany] to the north and Campania to the south), and later expanding its control throughout Italy. By the third and second centuries B. C.E., Rome had begun to extend its reach beyond the Italian peninsula.
Rome's expansion brought it into conflict with Carthage in North Africa (modern Tunisia). Carthage was established in 814 B. C.E. as a Phoenician trading colony, but it soon became a wealthy and independent power, controlling much of the sea trade around the Mediterranean. During the third and second centuries B. C.E., Rome and Carthage became embroiled in series of conflicts called the Punic Wars (Punic comes from the Latin word for Phoenician). During the Second Punic War (218-202 B. C.E.), Carthage's forces were led by Hannibal, a brilliant general and military strategist (whose name contains the Phoenician theophoric “Bal" [Baal]). Although Hannibal gained notoriety for leading elephants with his army across the Alps (most of the elephants died during the crossing), his real success came from defeating the Roman army at several important battles around Italy, which demonstrated that Rome was not invincible and caused the desertion of key allies. Nevertheless, Rome rallied and the Second Punic War ended with Carthage's defeat at the battle of Zama (204 B. C.E.). After the battle, Hannibal took refuge with Antiochus III, the Seleucid king. A decade later (183 B. C.E.), after Antiochus III was defeated by Rome, Hannibal ended his life by taking poison.
After the battle of Zama, Rome imposed on Carthage harsh terms of surrender. Following another round of conflict (the Third Punic War), Rome razed Carthage to the ground and, according to tradition, sowed the ground with salt to ensure its desolation. In that same year (146 B. C.E.), Rome also destroyed Corinth, a prosperous trading city that had opposed Roman expansion into Greece. By the first century B. C.E., Rome was making significant inroads into the Hellenistic world. At the same time, the Roman Republic was beginning to dissolve, as powerful generals fought for control. These generals included Pompey, who annexed the Hasmonean kingdom on behalf of Rome in 63 B. C.E. (discussed later), and Julius Caesar, who ruled Rome as dictator from 48 to 44 B. C.E. After Caesar's assassination, his step-nephew Octavian (later Augustus) formed a ruling coalition of three men called the Second Triumvirate. By 36 B. C.E., the coalition had been reduced to two: Octavian, who was in charge of the western half of the Mediterranean, and Mark Antony, who ruled the eastern half of the Mediterranean. Mark Antony established his base of operations in Alexandria, where he met and fell in love with the Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII, for whom he abandoned his wife Octavia (the sister of his co-ruler Octavian).
Historical Background: Palestine
Although under the Ptolemies and Seleucids the Torah continued to have the status of royal law in Judea, the impact of Hellenization caused deep divisions among the Jewish population. Many of Jerusalem's elite families (including priests) eagerly adopted Greek customs. We have already seen Greek influence on the style and decoration of the baris (the Qasr el-Abd) at Iraq el-Amir, which was constructed by the Tobiad Hyrcanus around 175 B. C.E. In the same year, Jason, who was serving as interim high priest on behalf of his brother Onias III (see Sidebar on the Heliodorus affair), convinced the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes (ruled 175—164 B. C.E.) to refound Jerusalem as a Greekpolis named Antiochia. Jerusalem's conversion to a polis was not imposed on the Jews but was initiated by Jason and his supporters, and our ancient sources give no indication of opposition within the Jewish community. Greek law now became the law of the land, although the practice of Judaism was still legal. The author of the apocryphal work 2 Maccabees, who was opposed to Hellenization, was scandalized by the behavior of the Jerusalem high priests:
And to such a pitch did the cultivation of Greek fashions and the coming-in of foreign customs rise, because of the excessive wickedness of this godless Jason, who was no high priest at all, that the priests were no longer earnest about the services of the altar, but disdaining the sanctuary and neglecting the services, they hurried to take part in wrestling school, and after the summons to the discus-throwing, regarding as worthless the things their forefathers valued, and thinking Greek standards the finest.
(2 Macc. 4:13-15; NRSV)
In 167 B. C.E., Antiochus IV issued an edict requiring all inhabitants of his kingdom to adopt Greek practices and customs, including worshipping Greek gods. This edict also outlawed the practice of Judaism, including the observance of the Sabbath, dietary laws, and circumcision. The Jerusalem temple was rededicated to Olympian Zeus and was defiled through the sacrifice of pigs and the practice of sacred prostitution. Similarly, the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim was rededicated to Zeus Hellenios. Although Antiochus IV's reasons for issuing this edict are not entirely clear, he likely was motivated by political considerations rather than anti-Jewish sentiment. As we have seen, Hellenistic kings typically used Hellenization as a means of unifying diverse populations under their rule.
No matter what Antiochus IV's motives were, the effect was the same: practicing Judaism now became a criminal act punishable by death. Our ancient sources indicate that many Jews readily abandoned Judaism and embraced Greek customs. However, some Jews opposed Antiochus IV's edict. Trouble erupted in Modiin, a village midway between modern Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, when an elderly local priest named Mattathias defied the king's order to participate in a Greek sacrifice, killing a Jew who complied and executing a king's officer. Mattathias was the head of the Hasmonean clan. His third son (out of five) — Judah “Maccabee" (the hammer) — took charge of rebel bands that fled to the countryside. The rebels conducted guerilla warfare against Seleucid troops sent by Antiochus IV to enforce his edict, and attacked Hellenizing Jews (whom they considered “lawless" for having abandoned the observance of the Torah). In other words, the Maccabean revolt was also a civil war that pitted conservative Jews against Hellenizers.
Under Judah's command, the rebels scored some significant victories in battles against Antiochus IV's forces. After Antiochus IV died in 164 B. C.E., his son Antiochus V issued a new edict that rescinded the old one, permitting the practice of Judaism and returning the Jerusalem temple to the Jews. Judah and his followers cleansed and rededicated the Jerusalem temple to the God of Israel in mid-December 164 B. C.E., an event commemorated by the holiday of Hanukkah. Jews celebrate Judah's victory and the rededication of the temple by lighting a nine-branched candelabrum that recalls the seven-branched menorah (lampstand) used to light the temple's interior.
After the rededication of the temple, Judah and his followers renewed the conflict, capitalizing on the weakening condition of the Seleucid kingdom. The Jewish rebels were supported by the Romans, who were interested in undermining Seleucid power. Judah sent delegates to Rome, where they appeared before the Senate and signed a treaty of friendship and alliance. After Judah was killed in battle (160 B. C.E.), his brother Jonathan assumed leadership of the revolt. Jonathan exploited a quarrel between two claimants to the Seleucid throne to establish Judean independence from Seleucid rule. Jonathan also assumed the office of high priest — a controversial move that deeply divided the Jewish population, as it violated the biblical principle of separation between royal and priestly powers (a precedent first established by the appointment of Moses as leader of Israel and his brother Aaron as high priest). After Jonathan was killed (142 B. C.E.), the last surviving brother, Simon, took over. Simon renewed the treaty of friendship and alliance with the Romans, serving as ruler and high priest until his death in 134 B. C.E.
Simon was succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus I (134—104 B. C.E.). John Hyrcanus I embarked on an aggressive campaign of expansion, conquering Idumaea, Samaria, and territories in Transjordan. He instituted a policy of Judaiza-tion, forcing non-Jewish peoples to convert to Judaism or go into exile. As a result, the Idumaeans now were converted to Judaism — among them, Antipas, the grandfather of Herod the Great. The Samaritans were dealt with differently. They were a Yahwistic population who already worshiped the God of Israel but were considered schismatics by the Judeans. Therefore, John Hyrcanus I did not convert the Samaritans, but instead destroyed their temple on Mount Gerizim. Because modern (rabbinic) Judaism prohibits forced conversion and discourages proselytizing activity, scholars debate the motives behind Hasmonean policy. Perhaps it makes the most sense to consider Hasmonean Judaization as analogous to Hellenization, with the Hasmoneans using Judaism as a means of unifying different peoples under their rule.
John Hyrcanus I was succeeded by his son Aristobulus I (104—103 B. C.E.). To eliminate the competition for the throne, Aristobulus I had one brother put to death and imprisoned his other brothers and his mother (where she died of starvation). Aristobulus I was the first Hasmonean to adopt the title of “king." He conquered Galilee and the Golan, forcibly converting to Judaism the native populations, including the Ituraeans of the Golan. Aristobulus I's Judaization of Galilee approximately one century before Jesus' birth should be considered as a factor in Matthew and Luke's attempts to establish a Judean (versus Galilean) origin for Jesus (because, according to Jewish tradition, the messiah will be descended from the Judean house of David).
When Aristobulus I died of an illness in 103 B. C.E., his widow, Salome Alexandra, freed his brothers (who were still in prison) and married one of them — Alexander Jannaeus (ruled 103—76 B. C.E.). Alexander Jannaeus was a cruel and ruthless ruler, whose disregard for the proper observance of Jewish law aroused much opposition among the Jewish population, especially the Pharisees. Eventually some of these Jews rebelled, turning to the Seleucid king
Demetrius III for help. But when Demetrius III invaded, the rebels regretted their actions and defected back to Alexander Jannaeus. Nevertheless, Alexander Jannaeus exacted revenge on them, as Josephus describes: “He [Alexander Jannaeus] brought them [the rebels] back to Jerusalem; and there he did a thing that was as cruel as could be: while he feasted with his concubines in a conspicuous place, he ordered 800 of the Jews to be crucified, and slaughtered their children and wives before the eyes of the still-living wretches" (Ant. 13.380).
When Alexander Jannaeus died, his widow Salome Alexandra succeeded him to the Hasmonean throne (76—67 B. C.E.). Because only men could serve in the Jerusalem temple, Salome Alexandra's older son John Hyrcanus II officiated as high priest in her stead. After Salome Alexandra's death, a civil war erupted between her sons, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. The ensuing chaos and instability provided an opportunity for the Roman general Pompey to annex the Hasmonean kingdom (63 B. C.E.).
The Romans immediately dismembered the Hasmonean kingdom. Hyrcanus II was appointed high priest and put in charge of administering areas with high concentrations of Jews (Judea, Idumaea, Galilee, and Peraea [the area on the eastern side of the Jordan River and Dead Sea]). Hyrcanus was assisted by Antipater, an influential and well-connected Idumaean whose father, Antipas, had been converted to Judaism by the Hasmoneans. After Antipater was assassinated in 43 B. C.E., the Romans appointed his sons Phasael and Herod “tetrarchs of Judea." The most Hellenized cities in the region — those most loyal to Rome — were formed into a semiautonomous league called the Decapolis. The Decapolis cities, which were concentrated to the north and east of the Sea of Galilee, were part of the newly established Roman province of Syria, which was under the administration of a high-ranking official called a legate (the commander of a legion), who was based in Antioch.
By the middle of the first century B. C.E., Roman expansion eastward brought Rome into conflict with the Parthians, the successors to the ancient Persians. In 40 B. C.E. the Parthians overran Syria-Palestine and reestablished the Hasmonean kingdom, placing on the throne Mattathias Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus II. Mattathias Antigonus captured Phasael, who committed suicide, and Hyrcanus II, whom he disqualified for the office of high priest by disfiguring him (he bit off Hyrcanus II's ear!). Herod fled for his life, moving south through Idumaea, depositing his family for safekeeping on the fortress atop Masada, and pleading with the Nabataean king for assistance (Herod's mother was a Nabataean named Cypros). When the Nabataeans turned him down, Herod went to Egypt, where Cleopatra welcomed him and offered her assistance. However, Herod refused Cleopatra, whom he mistrusted, and sailed for Rome. In Rome, Herod appeared before the Senate, which — thanks to Mark Antony's support and encouragement — bestowed on him the title “King of Judea."
5.1 Map of the Hasmonean Palestine. Ancient World Mapping Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (Www. unc. edu/awmc).
Archaeology: Sites
World History
