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Paetina, Aelia

Nia. This intervention made war inevitable, although he did not live to see it. He was followed by his brother Oroses.

Paetina, Aelia See Claudius.

Paetus, Lucius Caesennius (fl. first century c. e.) Consul in 61 c. e. and a disastrously incompetent legate Paetus had the misfortune of having his faults made even m ore obvious by his brilliant savior, corbulo (2). In 62, N ero appointed him the legate of Armenia, where he was to relieve Corbulo of some of his burdens. When, later in that year, the Parthians of Vologases I made trouble in A rmenia, he gathered his available legions (the IV and XII) and set out at once. His marches were fruitless, his plans ill-conceived. Within months he was forced to re treat, abandoning the East to Corbulo, who completed Rom e’s dealings with Parthia. Upon Paetus’s return to Rome, Nero told him that a pardon was immediately forthcoming, for any general so easily frightened would surely die from prolonged anxiety Because of Paetus’s experience in the Syrian provinces, Vespasian (c. 70) made him governor of Syria. In that capacity he conquered Commagene in 72/3, making it a Roman pro vi n c e. He thus made up for his terrible losses of the past.

Paganism Polytheism, the worship of more than one god, was the reigning form of worship in the ancient world, remaining so throughout the Republic and Roman Empire until its overthrow by Christianity. For the Roman government, organized paganism was essential for two reasons: first, it helped to ensure the continued blessings, protection, and patronage of the gods for the empire. Second, it offered a means by which vast populations in the provinces could be brought under Rome’s influence. Aside from the Roman imperial cult, there were the very old Delphic Oracles and the gods and goddesses of the East, including Mithras, Isis, Osiris, and Asclepius. These other cults became part of what was known to Christendom as paganism.

Christianity presented a fundamental challenge to pagan beliefs. It called for a rejection of the old gods, preached views contrary to the designs of the imperial g o v e rnment and seemed to Roman officials to be antisocial. The bitter hatred evinced between pagans and Christians became so intense that reconciliation was impossible. When Christianity began to propagate, it faced more opposition from Judaism than from dfi c i a l s of the Roman state, who viewed the new cult as an o ffshoot of the Jewish religion. Slowly, paganism perceived the threat from Christian doctrines. There followed two centuries of varyingly intense persecutions and extermination programs, culminating in 3/2 c. e. in the ED ic t o f m ilan, granting religious freedom in the e m p i re. With Constantine the great and his championing of the cause of Christianity, the war of the faiths seemed over.

Constantine made a deliberate choice in Christianizing the Roman Empire. He refused, though, to destroy the pagans, as they had tried to do with the Christians in the past. Rather, he promoted the precepts of the Christian Church, making it preferable socially. As virtually the entire imperial establishment, from the farmers in the provinces to the governors and the Praetorian prefects was pagan, Constantine allowed time and the fanaticism of Christian leaders to do their work.

The few laws that had been passed during the reign of Constantine against pagan activities were followed and extended by his sons, especially constantius ii. Sacrifices were stopped and, supposedly, all places of pagan worship were to be closed. Such laws, however, were often lamely enforced. Thus, when Julian the apostate reinstated paganism in 361, the old traditions were easily revived. jovian ended this policy in 363, but the temples remained open.

In the second half of the fourth century, emperors such as Gratian, Valentinian ii and especially Theodosius the Great acted with ruthlessness in the suppression of the temporal trappings of paganism. Gratian stopped using the title pontifex maximus (senior priest of Roman religion), ceased subsidies to the Roman cults and dramatically decreed that the pagan statue of victory be removed from the Senate. The appeal to Valentinian II to restore it was defeated by the formidable AMBROSE, bishop of Milan. symmachus, the gifted orator and philosopher who delivered the appeal, emerged as the foremost spokesman for the old ways. Theodosius then appointed cynegius, his Praetorian prefect of the East, with the task of closing any temple where sacrifices had been made. This decision inflamed clerics and Christians throughout the East to root out all symbols of paganism. in Alexandria, for instance the famed Serapeum was ruined by a group of monks under the patriarch of Alexandria, THEOPHILUS, in 389 or 391. At the prodding of Ambrose, Theodosius, in 391-392, passed harsh and far-reaching laws aimed at ending organized paganism entirely. it was treasonous to make sacrifices of any kind, all idols were removed and fines were levied on all temple visitations.

The final gasp of large-scale paganism came in 392, when the usurper eugenius, supported by the MAGISTER MILITUM ARBOGAST, declared that the old gods were to be worshiped once more. Victory was returned to the Senate house and, with the banners of Hercules leading the way, Eugenius and Arbogast set off in 394 to battle with Theodosius. On September 5-6, 394, the cause of paganism was destroyed at frigidus. Theodosius instructed the Senate to have Victory removed once more.

Over the next century the Oracle at Delphi was closed, Mysteries of all kinds were ended and pagan temples often converted into Christian buildings. Some pagan movements were more easily absorbed into the

Christian community, especially neoplatonism, while paganism lingered for many years in secret.

See also Diocletian; gods and goddesses of rome; magic; neo-pythagoreanism; philosophy; priesthood;

RELIGION.

Suggested Readings: Benko, Stephen. Pagan Rome and the Early Christians. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984; Dowden, Ken. Religion and the Romans. London: Bristol Classical Press, 1995; Dumezil, Georges. Archaic Roman Religion. Translated by Philip Krapp. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996; Ferguson, John. Greek and Roman Religion: A Source Book. Park Ridge, N. J.:

Noyes Press, 1980; -. The Religions of the Roman

Empire. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982; Fish-wick, Duncan. The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire. New York: E. J. Brill, 1987; Fox, Robin Lane. Pagans and Christians. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988; Glover, T. R. The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire. Boston: Beacon Press, 1960; Henig, Martin and Anthony King, eds. Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire. Oxford, U. K.: Oxford University Committee for

Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, 1986;-. Rel i-

Gion in Roman Britain. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984; Liebeschuetz, J. H. W G. Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979; Henig, M a rtin, and Anthony King, eds. Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire. Oxford, U. K.: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, 1986; Lyttelton, Margaret, and We rner Forman. The Romans, Their Gods and Their Beliefs. London: Orbis, 1984; MacMullen, Ramsay. Paganism in the Roman Empire. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981; North, J. A. Roman Religion. Oxford, U. K.: Oxford University Press, 2000; Smith, John Holland. The Death of Classical Paganism. N ew York: Scribner, 1976; Turcan, Robert. The Cults of the Roman Empire. Translated by Antonia Nevill. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1996; Wa rdman, Alan. Religion and Statecraft Among the Romans. B altimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982; Watson, Alan. The State, Law, and Religion: Pagan Rome. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992.

Palaemon, Quintus Remmius (fl. first century c. e.) A teacher and writer

Palaemon came originally from Vicenza to Rome, where he made for himself a very successful career as an instructor, claiming as his pupils such notables as Quintilian and Persius. He was also the author of a (lost) study on grammar, Ars grammatica. Widely used in its day, the Ars became part of the works of the writers CHARISIUS and pliny the elder. Palaemon also included examples from Virgil and Horace.

Palaestina (Palestine) Name given by the Greeks and Romans to the entire region inhabited by the Jews. It

Was a derivation of the Hebrew word for the Philistines, although the Roman term for the actual kingdom of the Jews was judaea. Throughout the years of Rome’s occupation of Palestine the region rarely ceased to be troublesome. As a result of the massive Jewish rebellion of 132-135 C. E., Hadrian changed the name of the province of Judaea to Syria-Palaestina, or just Palaestina. By the early fourth century, Palestine was one of the provinces of the diocese of the oriens.

Palatine Hill See hills of rome.

Palatini The name generally applied to all members of the imperial court during the later years of the Roman Empire. The title palatini came to signify a special branch of the government as well. Palatini were agents of the comites largitionum and the comes rei privatae, who journeyed to the provinces to collect taxes. Their powers and influence increased during the fourth and fifth centuries C. E. to the extent that an attempt by Valentinian II in 440 to curtail their often extortionate activities met with total failure.

Pales A minor deity in the imperial cult. Pales was the protector of flocks and shepherds. His festival, the Palilia, was held on April 21 of each year. Its staging and his worship were directed by the Flamen Palatualis.

See also flamens; gods and goddesses of rome.

Palfurius Sura (fl. late first century c. e.) An orator expelled from the Senate sometime during the reign of Vespasian

Becoming a Stoic, Palfurius nevertheless retained his exceptional gifts for speechmaking and won the competition of Jupiter Capitolinus during the time of Emperor Domitian. The crowd called for his full pardon, but the emperor would not hear of it. Palfurius subsequently was feared as a dangerous delator (informer).

See also capri.

Panegyric A laudatory address given in praise of the gods and the emperor; another means of flattering the ruler. The panegyric began in ancient Greece as a speech delivered to general assembly (a panegyris), such as the olympic festival. Latin panegyrics possibly originated from the laudatio funebris (funeral eulogy) for famous persons. Another type of address was the epitaphion (funeral oration) for heroes or great figures.

It became custom for newly elected consuls to deliver a public thanks (gratiarum acto) to the gods and the emperor. Emperor Augustus (ruled 27 B. C.E.-14 c. e.) required this oration through a senatus consultum. The foremost Roman panegyricist of the imperial age was PLINY THE YOUNGER whose nomination to the consulship by Emperor Trajan in 100 c. e. prompted a gratiarum acto that was preserved in the ancient collection of speeches, the XII Panegyric Latini. in the collection, Pliny was considered the model for subsequent orators. it was accepted practice from the third to the fifth century for panegyri-cists to flatter their imperial patrons. other notable practitioners of the form were: Claudius Mamertinus, Nazarius, Ausonius, Ennodius, Pacatus, and Eumenius. During the second century C. E., the Greek Aelius Aristides delivered a panegyric on Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Pannonia One of Rome’s most important provinces along the Danube, eventually divided into separate provinces: inferior and Superior. The province linked the Danubian frontier with illyricum, and noricum with MOESIA. As was true of most of the lands on the Danube, Pannonia was the home of a varied people, including Celts and Thracians, but the main racial stock was Illyrian, especially in the east and in the south. Dio Cassius, a historian and a governor in Pannonia Superior, wrote that the inhabitants were very brave, bloodthirsty, and high spirited. Some scholars say their name was derived from the habit, peculiar to the region, of cutting up old clothes and sewing the strips together, with the resulting apparel called pannus, or patch.

First Roman contact came in the late second century B. C.E., although long-term Roman policy did not include Pannonia until the time of Octavian (Augustus). In 35 B. C.E., he launched a punitive expedition against the Pan-nonians with the aim of subduing some of the local tribes, planting a Roman presence and giving necessary training to his troops in preparation for the inevitable war with Marc Antony The sortie proved far more difficult than was imagined, and Octavian realized that any return would have to be in force. In 13 B. C.E., Marcus Vinicius was dispatched by Augustus to conquer Pannonia. He was joined in 12 by Marcus Agrippa, who was followed by Tiberius. The eventual emperor marched across the country, reducing the Pannonians tribe by tribe. An uprising in 11 was quickly suppressed, and the entire area seemed so under control by 8 that Tiberius departed, replaced by Sextus Appuleius. The calm was deceiving. Beginning in 6 C. E., three years of bitter fighting saw the Pannonians, under bato, throw off their allegiances to Rome, setting much of Pannonia and Illyricum in flames. Tiberius returned with a slow, methodical, and highly successful strategy that brought all of the territory once more under the Roman standard. Initially it was planned to place Pannonia under the control of Illyricum, a view that was shattered by the rebellion. Thus, a new province was created to administer the Pannonian section of the Danube. A legate was in charge until the reign of Trajan (98-117 C. E.), when two provinces were decreed (circa 103), Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior.

Throughout the first century C. E., Pannonia was subjected to rigorous Romanization, principally through the presence of the legions, their camps and the eventual surrounding communities, the canabae. Colonies of veterans were created to ensure the spread of the Latin language and culture. Typical of these frontier provinces, Pannonia assumed a dual nature. Near the more civilized Noricum, Illyricum and Italy, the degree of Romanization was more pronounced. Those wilder zones right on the Danube, where military life was harder and contact with the trans-Danubian barbarians unavoidable, were less Romanized. This dichotomy was largely solved by Emperor Hadrian (ruled 117-138 C. E.), who promoted such centers as Car-nuntum and Aquincum to full municipal standing. Added wealth promoted increased participation in imperial life and affairs.

Econom ically, Pannonia was never particularly pro s-perous. With dense forests and harsh mountains, it could boast little agriculture. Grape quality was low, meaning its wines would not sell, and its only lucrative industry was in acquiring wild animals, boars, bison, and bears for the entertainers and circus organizers of Rome. Natural mineral production was another matter, for Pannonian mines produced iron and silver, but it was inferior to competitors’ supplies from Moesia and Dacia. Pannonia, however, could boast the largest collection of legions in the entire the ater. Strategically, the two provinces were at the cro s s-roads of the Danube. Flowing past vindobona, the mighty Danube turned abruptly south just north of Aquincum, pouring into the Drave River. Troops were needed to watch the entire bord e r. The corridor between the Danube and the easterly Theiss River was a collecting place for barbarian peoples, including the iazyges.

PANNONIA SUPERIOR

The larger of the two Pannonian provinces, occupying the west from Carnuntum to Aquincum. Administratively, Pannonia Superior was better organized than its sister province, possessing at its capital the main seat of government for the legate, who was, realistically, the commander of Upper and Lower Pannonia. Carnuntum, his center, possessed theaters, an amphitheater, a basilica, and a forum.

PANNONIA INFERIOR

Smaller than Pannonia Superior, this province administered the river and its islands from, roughly, Aquincum (modern Budapest) to Moesia Superior. Fronting perpetually troubled parts of the trans-Danube, Pannonia Inferior was the starting point for elements of the Roman army in any major operation against the Dacians. one of its important cities was Sirmium.

Pansa Caetronianus, Gaius Vibius (d. 43 b. c.e.) Consul in 43 b. c.e. and tribune in 51 b. c.e.

During the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey, he joined the cause of the Caesareans (see civil war, FIRST triumvirate). After Caesar’s assassination, however, he became one of the leading proponents for the return of the Republic, and was elected consul in 43, with hirtius. The two took command of the senatorial legions, marching north to engage Marc Antony, now an enemy of the Senate. On April 14, 43 b. c.e., the two forces collided at the battle of forum gallorum. Although the Senate proved victorious, Pansa was wounded and died a few days later.

Pantaenus (d. c. 190 c. e.) Christian theologian and the first known head of the catechetical school of Alexandria

He probably came from Sicily but was a convert to Chris-tiani ty, traveling extensively, perhaps even to India. Among his greatest students was clem en t of alexand ria.

Pantheon one of the greatest architectural achievements masterpieces in Roman history; Marcus Agrippa constructed the original Pantheon in 27 b. c.e., to serve as a temple to all of the gods of Rome. The site was in the CAMPUS MARTIUS, but it was decided at the start of Hadrian’s reign (c. 117 c. E.) to replace it with a new and better edifice. The result was a vast improvement.

Under the guidance of Hadrian, the new Pantheon was built from 118 to 125, on the same site as that of Agrippa’s old structure. As was the habit of Hadrian, he refused to lay claim to the Pantheon, preferring to have an inscription carved on the porch giving credit to Marcus Agrippa. Further repairs or minor adjustments were made by Septimius Severus and Caracalla in the early third century c. e. Agrippa’s Pantheon would have fit very comfortably in the temple of Hadrian’s time. The cupola’s diameter measures the same as its height from the floor, forming half of a perfect sphere. Designed to reflect the few sources of light admitted to the building, the dome or rotunda was a marvel, the largest built by ancient methods. Made of solid concrete, the dome was originally covered with drawings, each being highlighted at various times of the day in the shifting light. visitors’ eyes were inevitably drawn upward to the circular aperture at the crown of the dome.

Ironically, the Pantheon survived only because it was perfectly suited to serve as a Christian church. Pope Boniface IV in 609 c. e. received it as a gift from a Byzantine emperor. Henceforth it was the Church of Santa Maria dei Martiri.

Reign (Year C. E.) 64 or 65 67(?) 76(?)

97 or 99 105 or 109 115 or 119 125(?)

136 or 138 140 or 142 155 166(?)

175

189

199

217(?)

Papacy The office of the bishops of Rome, the most important church office in the Christian world. Basing their claim to power upon the position of St. Peter, the bishops of Rome claimed supremacy over Christendom.

THE PAPACY (THE BISHOPS OF ROME)

64-483 C. E.

Bishop of Rome Peter (Saint)

Linus (Saint) Anacletus (Saint) Clement I (Saint) Evaristus (Saint) Alexander I (Saint) Sixtus I (Saint) Telesphorus (Saint) Hyginus (Saint) Pius I (Saint) Anicetus (Saint) Soter (Saint) Eleutherius (Saint) Victor I (Saint) Zephyrinus (Saint) Calixtus I (Saint)

Urban I (Saint) Pontianus (Saint) Anterus (Saint) Fabian (Saint) Cornelius (Saint) Lucius I (Saint) Stephen I (Saint) Sixtus II (Saint) Dionysius (Saint) Felix I (Saint) Eutychian (Saint) Gaius (Saint) Marcellinus (Saint) See vacant Marcellus I (Saint) Eusebius (Saint) Miltiades (Saint) Sylvester I (Saint) Mark (Saint)

Julius I (Saint) Liberius(Saint) Damasus I (Saint) Siricius (Saint) Anastasius I (Saint)

222-230

230-235

235- 236

236- 250 251-253

253- 254

254- 257 257-258 259-268 269-274 275-283 283-296 296-304 304-308 308-309

309 (or 310) 311-314 314-335 336 337-352 352-366 366-384 384-399 399-401

The interior of the Pantheon (Hulton/CettyArchive)

401-417

417- 418

418- 422 422-432 432-440 440-461 461-468 468-483

THE PAPACY (THE BISHOPS OF ROME) 64-483 C. E. (continued)

Innocent I (Saint) Zosimus (Saint) Boniface I (Saint) Celestine I (Saint) Sixtus III (Saint)

Leo I the Great (Saint) Hilary (Saint) Simplicius (Saint)

St. Peter, designated as the “Rock” upon which the church of Christ would be built, was mart y red in Rome, which attracted the first Christian proselytizers, who viewed the city not only as the capital of the world but also as the core of organized paganism. Just as the Christians adopted the organization of the Roman Empire in establishing their own hierarchy and internal stru c tu te, so did Rome emerge as their official headquarters. It was the seat of a bishop, a metropolitan (in control of the bishops of Italy) and the see for the bishop in charg e of Italy itself. More important, by the second century

C. E. , it was considered a more powerful see than that of any other city in the world. Other sites of antiquity, such as ALEXANDRIA and JERUSALEM, even antio ch, had suf-f e red misfortune and decay There thus existed practical and historical reasons for the supremacy of the see of Rom e.

In the second century C. E., irenaeus, bishop of Lyon, argued for Rome’s primacy in his defense of Christian orthodoxy. Councils throughout the fourth and fifth centuries confirmed the role that Rome would play in the Christianizing of the Roman Empire. The final steps were taken by a pope, whose legal mind and influence with the emperors ensured the aggrandizement of the papacy: LEO THE GREAT, who claimed the rights of St. Peter’s heir. He stretched the outright authority of his see to encompass the entire West, gained further concessions from Emperor Valentinian III, and then achieved lasting fame for himself and his office by persuading Attila the Hun to depart from Rome.

Papak (d. before 208 C. E.) (Pabhagh) Ruler of a small client state in the Parthian Empire during the first years of the third century C. E.

Papak headed a minor kingdom in the province of Persis, while the real power in that region rested with Gochihr, a member of the Basrangi at Stakhr. Through the marriage of his father Sassan to a princess of Basrangi, Papak established a claim to the throne. He murdered Gochihr and became king of Persis. His two sons were shapur and ARDASHIR. Upon Papak’s death Shapur succeeded him, only to die himself in 208. Ardashir followed, conquering all of PARTHIA and establishing the sassanid dynasty of PERSIA.

Paphlagonia Region of asia minor along the south shore of the black sea, bordering on Bithynia, Pontus, Phrygia, and Galatia. Traditionally a kingdom, Paphlago-nia passed into Roman control around 1 C. E. and became attached to the province of Galatia. There followed the usual introduction of Roman colonists, and by the second century C. E. the long-standing capital of the region, Gan-gra, was replaced by Pompeiopolis. Built further north, just above the Amnias River, the new capital was not only more suited to the tastes of the Roman settlers but also was better situated to share in the extensive economic prosperity of the Black Sea. Paphlagonia was affected by the major reforms of Emperor Diocletian in the late third century C. E.) It was reorganized into an individual province and attached to the diocese of Pontus.

Papinian (Aemilius Papinianus) (c. 150-211 c. e.) Jurist, prefect of the praetorian guard and a close adviser to Emperor Septimius Severus

Papinian was an important legalist who left a lasting impression on Roman law He was born in Syria, prob ably at Edessa, entering imperial service perhaps as the m agi s-ter libelloru m, or head of petitions. Working as a legal assistant to Marcus Aure l i u s ’s Praetorian prefects, Pap-inian made himself indispensable. By the time of Septim-ius Severus, he was greatly respected, and in 205, following the murder of the prefect Plautianus, the em peror named him one of his two new commanders for the Praetorian Guard. He thus became, as well, vice-pre s i-dent of the consilium prin cipis and the preeminent legal e xp e rt in the court of Severus. Journeying with the emperor to Britain, Papinian was present when the aged em peror died in 211. Following the murder of Geta by his brother Caracalla, Papinian was dismissed from his posts by the new, sole ruler. One year later, Caracalla allowed the Praetorians to kill Papinian, commenting only that the actual killers should have used an axe instead of a sword.

Papinian was the author of many legal works. His most important were 37 books on Quaestiones and 19 books of Responsa. Justinian in the sixth century c. e. incorporated much of his output into his own collection. As a writer, Papinian was noted for his exactness of wording and his own remarkable fluidity of composition.

Papius Mutilus, Marcus (fl. early first century c. e.) Consul in 9 c. e. with Quintus Poppaeus Secundus Papius Mutilus and Secundus were responsible for drafting the famed marriage law of Augustus, to which they lent their names; lex Papia Poppaea (see lex). Ironically, both of them were unmarried and childless.

Parcae The Roman name for the three fates, who were Clotho, Lathesis, and Atropos. Clotho spun the fate, Lachesis chose one for each person, and Atropos determined the fate that no one could avoid.

Paris (fl. mid-first century) Famous pantomime actor in the reign of Nero

Paris was a freedman in the house of DOM itia, N ero’s aunt, who became a favorite of the emperor and would entert a i n him. In 55 C. E., hoping to use this position to destroy her enemy Agrippina, Domitia had Paris play a part in an elaborate plot to bring charges against the Augusta. Although the scheme failed and many were banished or executed, Paris was spared. Nero declared Paris fre e - b o rn in 56, making it possible for him to demand the re t u rn of the sum paid to Domitia to end his slavery. Henceforth a fre e man, the actor remained in the good graces of Nero until 67. The emperor then asked to be instructed in the art of acting. When the monarch failed to master that craft, he ordered Paris put to death because his ability surpassed that of the emperor. See also theater.

Another actor of the same name achieved pro m i n e n c e in the late first century c. e. during the reign of Domitian (81-96 C. E.). Empress Domitia Longina fell in love with the perfo tm er, and Domitian murd e red him in the middle of the street. When mourning Romans brought flowers to the spot, he ord e red that they too should die.

Parthamasiris of Armenia (fl. second century c. e.) Son of Pacorus II of Parthia and nephew of Pacorus’s successor in 114 C. E., Oroses

Parthamasiris was nominated by Oroses to be the next ruler of Armenia, whose monarch, Exedares, had performed miserably and was, according to Oroses, a disappointment to both Rome and Parthia. Accordingly, Oroses deposed him and placed the diadem of Armenian sovereignty upon Parthamasiris’s head. Emperor Trajan, however, had other plans for Armenia. Advancing with his army against Parthia, he received Parthamasiris, who hoped to retain his new throne. Trajan listened to his request but then rejected him, declaring that Armenia was now Rome’s to govern. Parthamasiris was sent home to Parthia as Trajan embarked upon his war. The prince disappeared mysteriously on the way home.

Parthamaspates of Parthia (fl. early second century C. E.) Son of the Parthian general Sanatruces A nobleman, Parthamaspates was probably a claimant to the Parthian throne during the war between Parthia and Trajan (c. 114-117 C. E.). According to the historian John Malalas, Parthamaspates was bribed by Trajan to desert his father in re t u rn for re w a rcb. Accepting, the young man was made ruler of the Roman-backed government of P a rthia, established in 116 at Ctesiphon by Traj an’s decree. P a rthamaspates was neither strong nor popular. He was rejected by his own people and fell from power in 117.

Parthenius (d. 97 c. e.) Chamberlain of Domitian Called Satur or Saturinus by the historian Suetonius. P a rthenius became a leader in the plot to murder the

E m p e rcr in 96 c. e. He was greatly favored by Domitian, who allowed him to wear a sword, perhaps in honor of Pathenius’s experiences as a gladiator. it was Part h e-nius who sent in Stephanus to end Domitian’s life, and he probably had a role in elevating Nerva to the thro n e. In 97, Parthenius was handed over for execution when the Praetorian Guard forced Emperor Nerva to have the conspirators in Domitian’s assassination brought to j usti ce.

Paithi a A small region of the East, southwest of the Caspian Sea and north of the Persian Gulf, that became an em pire, stretching from Syria to India. The Parthians were actually a nomadic people called the Parni and were related to the fierce Dahae who had fought Alexander the G reat. Like the Dahae, the Parni were at first subject to the Persians, later falling under the power of the Seleu-cids. Internal organization seemed to coalesce in the third c e n tu ryB. c.E. , allowing them to strike out and seize vast s t retches of land in Persia, at the expense of their Seleucid over lords. They came to occupy the region called Part h a v a or Parthia. Dating from 247 b. c.e. , their kings established themselves as the heirs of the defunct Seleucids.

Parthia was an amalgam of territories and minor states, all beholden to the Arsacid dynasty, ruling from ctesiphon and ecbatana. Politically, the Arsacids drew their power from the noble families of the Pahlavi. The nobles, in turn, wielded administrative rights, such as the appointment of governors and contributions to the armies. In actual government, the Parthians relied upon the readily available system of the Seleucids, meaning that they were heavily influenced by the Greeks. Two councils made major decisions. The first was a board of advisers, the so-called Magi (from the ancient clan of Magus), and the other was composed of the nobility. Any new king of Parthia was chosen by them, a freedom of decision making that often resulted in the most qualified heir, not necessarily the oldest son, being crowned. This system was handicapped by corruption and internal decay, intrigues, murder, and ambition, all of which undermined the dynastic stability of the Arsacids. This deterioration was offset only temporarily by the rise of a fresh line, c. 10 c. e., from Atropatene.

It was a major but unavoidable flaw in the Parthian system that its nobles and vassals were allowed such a free hand in their own rule. The aristocracy, it was hoped, would always be reliable, but even the family of the Surens formed an eastern domain, the Indo-Parthian kingdom. To the south, furthermore, were to be found the kingdoms of the Characene, Elymais, and especially the Persis. The latter, under the Sassanids, were victorious in 226 C. E. over the weakened Parthians.

Culturally, the Parthians brought little to the throne aside from excellent military skills and a willingness to adopt facets of other social systems. Despite speaking the

Coins from the Parthian Empire (Courtesy Warren Esty)

Parthian Pahlavi dialect, the Arsacids relied upon Greek as a useful means of organizing the empire and connecting it to the outside world. Thus, councils, titles, literature, philosophy of rule, and bureaucracy were all Hellenic, though superficially, leaving them susceptible to foreign influences, both from the East and the West. Greek practices of warfare, such as the phalanx, bodies of infantry, or balanced attacks of foot and horse were abandoned in the face of the realities of Parthian strength and geographical necessities. The cavalry became the basis of the Parthian military might. They used the heavy cat-aphract, fast horse archers and other types of mailed horsemen. In their early wars with Rome, this strategy worked perfectly, as was obvious at carrhae against Crassus in 53 b. c.e. Wars with Roman legions, however, soon proved costly and disastrous. In war the Romans faced few equals, and Parthia could not match the financial and industrial resources of the Roman provinces.

Economically, the Parthians relied upon trade as their mainstay of expansion. They successfully moved the lines of communication from the Far East to the West through their lands. Caravans traveled from China and India across the Indo-Parthian kingdom to Ecbatana and then to distribution centers such as hatra, doura, petra, and

ANTIOCH.

While trade brought prosperity, the Parthians contributed few cultural innovations. They had brought their own gods with them, nurtured by their Magi; these deities, becoming eclipsed by Mazdaism, were adopted by the Arsacids as a popular gesture. Religious tolerance was an important policy of the Parthians, and in Persia the ancient faith of the Zoroastrians was still alive, waiting for the day when it could flower and return. Artistically there were perhaps three streams of influence in Parthia; the Hellenic, an Iranian style and the crude form practiced by the Parni nobles. Each made an impact on Parthian art.

Patavium Important town (present-day Padua) in northern Italy, situated above the Adige River, along the major traffic route from Mutina to Aquileia. Originally founded by colonists from the Venetii, under the Romans Patavium emerged as one of the most successful commercial centers in Italy. It was especially noted for its wool manufacturing and was a major factor in northern Italy’s economic recovery in the late third century C. E. Patavium was also the birthplace of the writer livy.

Paternus, Tarrutenius (late second century c. e.) Prefect of the praetorian guard from 180 to 182; was also a legalist, writer and general

Paternus served as ab epistulis latinis (secretary for Latin correspondence) under Emperor Marcus Aurelius, working as an envoy to the Cotini tribe in 169-170; around 179-180 he won a victory in the marcommanic

WARS.

Praetorian prefect for Commodus during the first years of that emperor’s reign, Paternus faced political opposition from his coprefect, Tigidius Perennis, appointed in 180. Perennis was victorious, for in 182 Commodus removed Paternus from his post, granting him the status of an ex-consul. A short time after that, however, Commodus charged him with participation in a conspiracy and put him to death. Paternus was the author of De re militari, a treatise on military laws used by Vegetius in the fourth century.

Pater Patriae “Father of the Country,” an honor bestowed only upon the most important or worthy figures in Rome. Although the title carried no actual political power, it was of lasting prestige. Cicero, following the Catiline Affair in 63 b. c.e., was the first to be granted the name Pater Patriae by a grateful senate. subsequently it was given to some, but not to all, emperors. In 2 b. c.e., Augustus became Father of the Country in recognition of his role both as architect of the Roman Empire and heir to Julius Caesar, who had borne the rank himself. The coins of Augustus bore the inscription “CAESAR AUGUSTUS DIVI F PATER PATRIAE.” Unable to compete with his pre-de cessor, Tiberius steadfastly refused the title. Emperors Gaius Caligula and Claudius initially declined but later accepted it. Nero followed their example. Other holders of the title were Vespasian, Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian.

Patria potestas Legal term denoting the rights and powers of the male head of Roman families. Such a head of household possessed all rights to oversee or examine the affairs of his sons and daughters and was able to banish them, send them to another family, even murder them (for just cause). When placed under the care of another paterfamilias, or head of a household, such offspring were considered real property, as were estates or slaves.

As autocratic as the patria potestas seemed, it was limited both by custom and, later, by imperial law. Cruel treatment or executions were generally determined by a family council. Further, the patria potestas could be ended at will by a father through emancipatio, or the granting of complete freedom to a son or an unmarried daughter. If a daughter married, she passed into the familia of her husband. Other means of breaking the power of a patria potestas were the joining of a priesthood, the Flamen Dialis or the sisterhood, the Vestal Virgins. The patria’s power ended with his death. With the dawning of the Roman Empire, the arbitrary position of the Roman father was altered, as murder was considered unacceptable punishment. Nevertheless, some elements remained, such as exposure or the deliberate killing of a retarded child. Even this practice was declared illegal in 374 C. E., but continued.

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