Up until the end of the nineteenth century bc, Upper Mesopotamia had been a politically fragmented region. Following several expansionistic attempts led by a variety of kings, the region found itself unified, though for a short period of time, under the rule of Shamshi-Adad. These expansionistic initiatives were characterised by a certain degree of flexibility and improvisation and were clearly the work of Amorite leaders. These leaders’ appreciation for large and unsettled territories was in marked contrast to the aim of Sumero-Akkadian rulers. The latter rather focused on the control of specific agricultural and administrative areas. Although the events took place in the same period, in this section the situation of the western area of the Euphrates Valley will be considered first, to be followed by the one of the eastern area of the Tigris valley.
The creation of the large and powerful kingdom of Mari happened during the reign of Yahdun-Lim, who belonged to the Banu-Sim’al tribe. His father Yaggid-Lim was possibly the king of nearby Suprum. Yaggid-Lim controlled the Middle Euphrates region and had fought for an extended period of time against Shamshi-Adad’s father, Ila-kabkabi, who controlled the Middle Tigris. Yahdun-Lim reigned for around fifteen years (ca. 1810—1795 bc) and moved the capital of his reign to Mari. He therefore replaced the dynasty of sakkanakku previously governing the city. Yahdun-Lim significantly enlarged his kingdom, becoming ‘king of Mari, Tuttul and Hana’. He constructed several canals, in particular the one linking the Khabur to the Euphrates, called Ishim-Yahdun-Lim. He also built several temples and fortification walls, especially in Mari and Terqa, which was the city of the god Dagan and the main religious centre of the region. Finally, he founded a city in the desert, Dur-Yahdun-Lim. A commemorative inscription reports his victory over ‘seven kings, fathers of Hana’, the leaders of the nomadic tribes located in the region of Mari and Terqa, as the defining moment in the formation of his kingdom. The inscription then continues listing the king’s building program.
On a political level, in order to oppose Shamshi-Adad, Yahdun-Lim sealed alliances (through treaties and inter-dynastic marriages) with Yamhad to the west and Eshnunna to the east. Eshnunna controlled
Suhum, a region in the Euphrates Valley south of Mari, where it founded the city of Haradum. At the time, then, the kingdom of Eshnunna bordered with the one of Mari. In the same period, the Mari administration changed its former scribal tradition, inherited from the sakkanakku, with a new one, more Babylonian in style and imported from Eshnunna. On a military level, Mari was engaged on two fronts. In the north, the city conquered Tuttul (Tell Bi’a, near modern Raqqa) and Emar (Meskene). This area was formerly ruled by the Banu-Yamina, who rebelled against this expansion.
The foundation texts from the temple of Shamash celebrate this memorable victory against the Ben-jaminites. The latter are all listed with the name of their city and their tribe: Samanum and the Ubrabum; Tuttul and the Amnanum; Abattum and the Rabbum. These groups were supported by Sumu-epuh, king of Yamhad. The great victory was also celebrated in a year formula, and other formulas commemorated the conquest of the main rebellious centres. The celebratory inscription of Yahdun-Lim even attests his expedition to the Mediterranean. This achievement had both ideological connotations, implying that the king had reached the end of the world, and economic ones, since it allowed him to bring back cedar wood. However, this achievement also implies that Yamhad allowed the expedition to cross its territory.
Much more uncertain was the outcome of Yahdun-Lim’s wars against Shamshi-Adad. The king of Mari had a stable control over the Middle Euphrates and Lower Khabur regions. He therefore enlarged his sphere of influence through alliances with Nihriya and Talhayum in the Upper Balikh and with Kurda in the Upper Khabur, reaching as far as the foothills of the Jebel Sinjar. This expansion led to his conflict with Shamshi-Adad. Initially, Yahdun-Lim’s army had been quite successful, conquering Nagar (Tell Brak) and reaching Ekallatum, along the Tigris. In the long run, however, it was Shamshi-Adad who eventually succeeded, although the exact circumstances surrounding his victory are unknown to us. As a result of his defeat, Yahdun-Lim’s son, Sumu-Yaman, supplanted his father and possibly sought the support of Yamhad. A few years later Sumu-Yaman was also deposed, allowing Shamshi-Adad to conquer Mari.
World History
