With the expansion of the empire under the Han dynasty, emperors gave seals to client rulers to confirm them in office. These hold a particular attraction, because the form of the knob seems to reflect local traditions or interests. Thus a gold seal described in the Records of the Grand Historian (sHiji) as being conferred on the king of Dian in 109 b. c.e. had a knob in the form of a snake. The snake was a symbol of prosperity among this tribe in Yunnan province far to the south, and the seal text reads, “Seal of the King of Dian.” It was found in a royal grave at the necropolis of shizhaishan during the excavations there. Nine seals were found in the tomb of the second king of Yue (r. 137-122 b. c.e.), all placed close to his body, which had been interred in a jade suit. The largest is inscribed, “Administrative seal of the Emperor Wen,” and the handle is in the form of a coiled dragon. This seal is the largest of its type found, measuring 3.1 centimeters (1.2 in.) square. A seal in bronze from Yushigeti in remote western Xinjiang had a knob in form of a sheep. The local tribes people were sheep pastoralists, and their ruler was given the official title gui yi to confirm his official status. In 1979 a bronze seal was found at Sunjiazhai in Qinhai province. It conferred the right to rule there on the chief of the Xiongnu, and the knob in this case was in the form of a camel. The History of the Later Han Dynasty (hou HANSHU), compiled in 445 c. e., recorded the gift of a gold seal and ribbon to a delegation representing the ruler of Na, a small state in Japan, by the Han emperor GUANG WUDI in 57 C. E. In 1784, a golden seal was found at Fukuoka in Kyushu, inscribed, “The king of Na of Wa of Han.” It measures 2.35 centimeters (0.94 in.) across, and its knob was in the form of a snake. This is quite probably the same seal recorded in the history.
The Han people themselves could own their own seals for closing documents or letters, and these often had an auspicious saying or the figure of a human, animal, or bird. A rare example of the use of sealings was found in the tombs of the marquis of Dai, his wife, and son, from mawangdui. Dated to 168 b. c.e. in the case of the marquis and a few years later for his wife, these graves were found in a remarkably well-preserved condition. Tomb 1, for example, was covered by layers of charcoal and clay to exclude air and damp. Within lay bamboo cases containing a wide range of mortuary offerings, and these were sealed with the words “Steward of the house of the Marquis of Dai.”
See also funan; rig-veda; silk burial offerings.
Seismograph The world’s earliest known seismograph was manufactured by zhang Heng during the reign of the Chinese emperor shundi in 132 c. e. It is a large cylindrical bronze vessel with a diameter of almost two meters (6.6 ft.). The center of the vessel contains a long, vertical bronze rod that could move laterally as a pendulum when the vessel was rocked or moved, as in an earthquake. The edges of the vessel had eight levers that would be depressed downward when touched by the central rod. On being touched and moved, the corresponding eight cast dragons on the exterior of the vessel would rotate with the mouth downward, thereby releasing a bronze ball held in the mouth. The bronze ball would then fall into the waiting mouth of a toad, positioned on the base of the seismograph under each dragon. It is said that this instrument was so delicate that it could record a tremor imperceptible to human senses and point to its direction.
Selagiri Hill Selagiri Hill is located near Kyauktaw, in the upper reaches of the Kaladan River in arakan (Rakhine) province, western Myanmar (Burma). It is a location of the greatest sanctity, because according to legend the Buddha and some followers flew here from India. This led to the casting of the mahamuni (Great Sage) image of the Buddha, said to be the only such representation cast in his likeness during his lifetime. After being revered at the Mahamuni shine at dhanyawadi for more than a millennium, the image was moved to Mandalay in northern Myanmar in the late 18th century There it continues to attract the deepest possible veneration and is so covered in gold that its original form cannot be discerned. Investigations on Selagiri Hill have identified a brick stupa, associated with a series of magnificent sandstone reliefs depicting events in the life of the Buddha. while clearly showing Indian inspiration, the local school of sculptors created some innovations. One shows the Buddha’s enlightenment as he sits on a throne under a stylized bodhi tree, surrounded by a scalloped backdrop representing radiant light. The style of this and the other reliefs indicates an origin in the period when Vesali was the capital of this region in the sixth and seventh centuries C. E. A second sculpture, found complete and undamaged, shows the Buddha delivering his first sermon in the Varanasi (Benares) Deer Park. Again he sits on a throne, his feet resting on a stool. Two ascetics kneel beside him, and a deer lies in the foreground. A third example shows the Parinirvana, the death of the Buddha. He is seen lying under three trees, while mourners kneel beside him. A fine example of a bodhisattva was also found in this group, its presence indicating that MAHAYANA BUDDHISM had a strong hold in this region.
Seleucus I Nicator (356-281 b. c.e.) Seleucus I Nicator was a prominent general of Alexander the Great.
He was born in Macedonia and died in Thrace. He took part in Alexander’s eastern campaigns, and after the death of ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356-323 B. C.E.) and the division of his empire, Seleucus took control of Babylon and Persia. In 305 B. C.E. he took the title of basileus, or king, and set in train a campaign to recover the ground lost in northwestern India. This campaign, however, failed in the face of opposition from candragupta maurya (r. c. 325-297 b. c.e.). He is renowned for having founded the Seleucid empire.
Shangcunling Shangcunling is a cemetery located in Henan province, China. It was in use for about 120 years until the defeat of the small state of Guo by the jin in 655 B. C.E. Two hundred forty-three burials have been excavated there, and they have provided unusually clear evidence for the status differences within a senior line of the Guo lineage. Texts of the later warring states period (475-221 B. C.E.) stated that status distinctions were reflected in mortuary rituals by the presence or absence of tomb chambers and multiple wooden coffins. This cemetery also provides compelling evidence that even within related members of the same lineage, distinctions were made in the number of ding tripod bronze vessels, the presence of bell sets, and the provision of chariots and horses. The excavations at Shangcunling illustrate the importance of large-scale excavations in cemeteries that concentrate on the total assemblage of burials, be they rich or poor. In this way, vital social information confirming what is known from textual records can be obtained through archaeological research.
Information is available on the cemetery’s spatial layout. Small graves tended to cluster around two large and rich tombs, which probably contained the remains of the lineage heads of the time. The largest burial, Tomb 2009, included multiple sets of bronze ding tripods, bells, and ritual bronzes as well as a large assemblage of jade ornaments. Some jades were placed over the head and body. Large chariot and horse pits were associated with this burial, which held two coffins, one placed within the other. An inscription reveals that the dead person had been the head of a younger branch of the lineage. The inscription on the halberd from Tomb 2001, which also had sets of ding tripods, ritual vessels, and jades, states that the dead person was a senior member of a junior Guo lineage. Tomb 1052 is also a large and opulent interment. The text on the halberd states that it belonged to Yuan, the heir apparent to Guo. It has two wooden chambers and a coffin. Bells and bronze vessels were found in the northeastern corner of the tomb, while a chariot and its fitting lay in the northeast. weapons had been placed east and west of the coffin. The prince had worn jade earrings, and other jade ornaments lay on his chest. Ten chariots and twenty horses lay in the associated pits. High-status burials also contained MINGQI, miniature bronze wine vessels of a form that had not been used since the ritual reforms of the preceding western zhou DYNASTY (1045-771 B. C.E.). Rare cast-iron artifacts, including a dagger with jade handle and turquoise inlay on the blade, were found in silk-lined leather sheaths.
One grade of burials was associated with three ding tripods. Those without weapons are particularly interesting, because they contained the remains of high-status princesses from the state of Su, a polity that had marriage relations with Guo. Lower-ranked members were buried with one or two ding, but the majority of the tombs had only ceramic mingqi vessels and jades, and some had no grave goods at all.
See also eastern zhou dynasty.
Shangjun Shu The Shangjun Shu (Book of the Lord Shang) is a text that reflects the policy of shang yang (d. 338 B. C.E.), the first minister of the state of qin in China during the warring states period (475-221 b. c.e.). He advocated a totalitarian regime in which an autocratic king ruled through a rigorous and impartial legal system designed to strengthen agriculture and the military. This school of thought, known as legalism, was generated in an atmosphere of endemic and merciless warfare that resulted in the final triumph of the state of Qin. It was diametrically opposed to the philosophy of Confucius and MENCIUS and had its fulfillment in the burning of books and execution of scholars under the regime of qin SHIHUANGDI (259-210 B. C.E.), the first emperor of China.
Shangqiu, Treaty of The Treaty of Shangqiu, signed in 546 b. c.e., is probably the earliest arms-limitation pact known. The Spring and Autumn period of China (c. 772-c. 481 b. c.e.) saw rapid political developments that transformed the earlier Western Zhou feudal system. In place of loyalty by the lords of feudal states to the Zhou king, there was a major move toward independence. At first rivalries were contained under the BA system, whereby one state would be accorded a leadership role. This was first held by the state of zheng, then QI, and finally jin. However by the sixth century b. c.e., lesser states had been increasingly absorbed by larger and more powerful ones, and four stood supreme: Qi in Shandong, QIN in the west, Jin in the center, and chu in the Chang (Yangtze) Valley The smaller surviving rulers were subjected to increasing threats to their security and warfare. The meeting at Shangqiu was designed to reach agreements between the big players and resulted in the limitation of the number of chariots that each could maintain and deploy. Four decades of relative peace ensured.
See also eastern zhou dynasty; western zhou
DYNASTY.
Shang state Shang is the name given to the second historically documented state of China. Although Shang was a literate civilization, virtually no texts survived for modern analysis until the discovery of the oracle bones. Most oracle-bone archives have been recovered through excavations. Many graves, from that of the meanest commoner to those of members of the royal family, have been opened, and Shang cities have been examined. Fieldwork has expanded beyond the Shang heartland in the central plains of the Huang (Yellow) River, and the extent of Shang influence has been recognized. Such work has also emphasized that the Shang were not alone in the formation of Chinese civilization. In Sichuan, for example, the separate and independent state of SHU has been identified as being a contemporary of late Shang society, with its capital at the city of sanxingdui.
The documentary and archaeological evidence for Shang reveals that it was a markedly stratified society, ruled by a royal clan in which the succession followed in the male line, either from father to son or from brother to brother. The ruling elite controlled widespread trade networks that carried necessary goods to the capital, including the vital turtle bones from the south, copper and tin from the mines, salt from coastal sources, and surplus agricultural products from the sustaining countryside.
Specialist manufacturing complexes were established for the casting of the large ritual bronze vessels and metal armaments. One of the features of late Shang military equipment, the chariot, would have demanded considerable expertise. Specialization was an important aspect of the Shang centers. There were outstanding ceramics, bone workshops, and the manufacture of a wide range of ornaments, weapons, and ritual objects from jade, turquoise, shell, and ivory Silk was being woven into fine fabrics.
The name Shang derives from that used for the first capital. Traditionally, the Shang state dates from 1766 b. c.e. and ended with its defeat at the hands of the Zhou at the BATTLE OF MUYE in 1045 b. c.e. However, the unusual field of archaeoastronomy has afforded a more precise date. A conjunction of five planets that occurred in 1576 b. c.e., described in later Zhou records, has pinpointed the year 1554 b. c.e. as that in which Cheng Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty, began his reign. Until the late 19 th century, knowledge of the Shang was confined to Chinese histories, particularly the SHIJI of sima QIAN. These texts listed the names of 30 Shang kings and 14 rulers who preceded the establishment of the dynasty back to its mythical origins. They also named seven capitals, the last Yin, ruled by 12 Shang kings. Knowledge of Shang was dramatically increased by the discovery of oracle bones in the 1890s and the inception of archaeological research in 1928 at Yin, also known as anyang.
ORACLE BONES
The oracle bones are flat bones, preferably turtle shells or cattle ribs and shoulder blades, that were used by the Shang rulers for divining the future. Cracks formed through the application of heat to pits cut in the underside of the bone were regarded as oracular predictions. They were accompanied by inscriptions that described the issue under consideration and the result of the divination. Advice was sought on whether to attack a given enemy, to go hunting, and how to appease the ancestors and thereby relieve the emperor of some ailment. others were concerned with the weather, with particular reference to the agricultural round. Rain in the growing season, for example, was regarded as vital to the interests of the state.
When an oracle bone was no longer used, it was placed into a pit. Some archive pits at Anyang contained thousands of specimens, and their texts have significantly increased knowledge and understanding of the Shang civilization. Kings formerly known only through much later histories, such as that of Sima Qian, appear in the oracle texts in a vital part of their royal role, communication with the ancestors and planning of their policies. Specific instances of warfare and the results of such conflicts are recorded in these texts. The only intact royal tomb at Anyang contained the remains of a royal consort, FU hao, whose name is recorded in oracle bones.
EXCAVATIONS OF CAPITAL CITIES
Excavations at three of the capitals described in the historic records have revealed the layout of urban centers. ZHENGZHOU was occupied during the middle Shang period and was probably the capital known as Ao, founded by Zhong Ding, the sixth king whose name is known. Located in Henan province at the confluence of two rivers, Zhengzhou was surrounded by massive walls made of stamped earth. These survive in part to this day in the modern city These walls enclose an area of 335 hectares (838 acres); the entire urban complex, including its satellite cemeteries, occupation areas, and specialist workshops, extended over an area of 25 square kilometers (10 sq. mi.). The northeastern quarter of the walled precinct contains extensive raised platforms, also of the HANGTU, or stamped-earth construction, thought to have been part of a palace area. This part of the city also contained some elite graves, with fine jade and bronze vessels as mortuary offerings, as well as some fragments of the oracle bones that denoted royal activity. The city as a whole contained other such platforms, indicating a dense population, although the presence of a modern city makes extensive excavation difficult.
The extramural area included a bronze workshop. The clay-mold fragments indicate the local casting of vessels, daggers, knives, and arrowheads. Some of the bronzes attained monumental proportions. One cache found outside the city walls contained 13 fine bronze ritual vessels, including a ting that stood one meter (3.3 ft.) high and weighed 86.4 kilograms (190 lbs.). Large kilns were associated with the ceramic workshops at Zhengzhou, and bone workers produced ornaments and weapons.
In late 1999, a walled Shang city was found at Huan-bei. The central part of the walled area included a very large palace and temple complex, covering an area of 10 hectares (25 acres). The stamped-earth foundations of more than 25 individual buildings were identified through excavations in 2001, one of which covered 170 by 95 meters. Roads have also been found, one still bearing the rut marks of wheeled vehicles. Liu Zhongfu has suggested that the site might have been the capital known as Xiang, founded by He Tan Jia, the 12th king of the dynasty
Anyang is the name given to the Shang capital that probably replaced Huanbei. It was the last capital and was ruled by 12 successive kings. Unlike for its predecessors, no central walled city has been found. The remains of this site, described by the occupants as Shang, occupy an extensive area north and south of the Huan River. Toward the end of its occupation, it covered at least 24 square kilometers (9.6 sq. mi.). It was discovered when scholars attempted to trace the source of the oracle bones that were being used for medicinal purposes in Beijing. Excavations, which began in 1928, uncovered the foundations for a series of large buildings raised on stamped-earth foundations south of a bend in the Huan River. These form the royal core of Anyang and cluster in three groups. The northern group, at least 15 buildings, is thought to be the earliest. The expansion of this royal area then saw the construction of the 21 buildings of the central group, and, finally, the southern group completed the complex. The buildings of the last group were associated with many human and animal sacrificial burials. As it grew, so the palace area enclosed earlier royal tombs, including that of Fu Hao, a principal consort to King Wu Ding. The complex included the palace precinct, ancestral temples, and repositories for the oracle-bone records. Some pits also held complete chariots and the skeletons of the horses and charioteers.
Royal Tombs
In 1933, during the eighth season of research there, the team was informed of the discovery on the northern bank of the Huan River of some exceptionally large bronze vessels. Further inquiries led them to a subterranean tomb of massive size. Subsequently, an area of 8,000 square meters (3.2 sq. mi.) was opened, and four tomb chambers up to 13 meters (43 ft.) deep were excavated. Although long since looted, the disturbed fill of the graves still contained fine jades and some large bronze ritual vessels. Moreover, more than 400 smaller burials of sacrificial victims interred as part of the royal mortuary rituals were uncovered. In 1935 nearly 10,000 square meters was excavated, and three further royal graves were cleared together with 800 smaller burials.
The seven royal graves were dominated by a deep central pit that had contained the wooden tomb chamber. It was reached by four ramps that entered from each side. In the case of Burial HPKM 1004, the central pit reached a depth of 12.2 meters below the ground surface and measured 15.9 by 10.8 meters at the base. The southern and longest entrance corridor was 31.4 meters long. The base of the pit contained a wooden chamber entered from the south. The space between the tomb and the sides of the pit was filled with pounded earth. Lengthy rituals would have accompanied the interment of the body, including the sacrifice of those found in the smaller graves in the vicinity.
A small part of another grave had escaped looting, and the finds revealed the wealth of the Shang kings. Two huge bronze cauldrons were found in the central pit, at a level just two meters above the top of the wooden burial chamber. These overlay a deposit of bronze weapons, including 360 spearheads and 141 helmets. Jade figures of animals, including turtles, frogs, and monsters, were found in the looters’ pits.
One of the most intriguing aspects of this royal necropolis is that the number of shaft graves matches the number of kings named in the Anyang oracle bones. The oracle bones state that humans and animals were sacrificed to the dead royal ancestors. Excavations have confirmed this. Extensive rows of graves in the vicinity of the royal tombs have been grouped into clusters, each representing a sacrificial event. Some contain the remains of complete human skeletons, others only skulls, and still others individuals who had been beheaded. Most were young men, but some victims were female. Children were found in a position suggesting that they had been bound and immolated while still alive. Animals were also slaughtered to appease the ancestors. Some pits contain multiple burials of horses; others include the remains of monkeys. The two largest pits, however, contain the skeletons of elephants, along with their keeper.
According to the oracle bones, the ruling elite of the Shang state were members of the Wang Zi, the royal segment of the Zi clan. Other clans of less exalted status made up the rest of Shang society, and some of them were encouraged to open new land to cultivation and establish town settlements. panlongcheng is just such a foundation.
World History
