Elephants in gold leaf and a statue of a standing man 1.25 meters in height. Ak Yum dates later than the early eighth century and possibly represents an enlargement of temple architecture dating to and perhaps inspired by King JAYAVARMAN II (c. 770-834 C. E.).
Alamgirpur Alamgirpur is a small settlement site located on the Hindon River, a tributary of the Jamuna River in northern India. Discovered in 1959, it is notable as a site showing the presence of the INDUS valley civilization east of the Jamuna. The site covers an area of only 60 by 50 meters (200 by 165 ft.), but excavations have uncovered the remains of late Harappan (early second millennium b. c.e.) material at the base, followed by occupation dating to the painted grey ware phase and historic occupation. The initial occupation saw the construction of houses in mud brick, wattle and daub, and, rarely, fired brick. These houses were associated with a typical Harappan material culture that included pottery vessels bearing the Indus script, animal figurines and carts in terra-cotta, steatite beads, and small bowls of faience.
Alexander the Great (356-323 b. c.e.) Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, was one of the greatest military leaders known.
He succeeded his father, philip, at the age of 20 in 336 B. C.E., inheriting plans to conquer the achaemenid EMPIRE, whose armies had previously unsuccessfully invaded Greece. In 334 b. c.e., Alexander crossed the Hellespont (Dardanelles, the strait separating Europe and Asiatic Turkey). After a series of stunning victories, he toppled the Achaemenid Empire and thus took control of its provinces or satrapies. To the east these extended as far as the Indus River. Seven years later, he marched east, with an army of 80,000, crossed the Hindu Kush Mountains, and descended onto the plains of the Indus and its tributaries. He first crossed the Indus, accepting Indian client kings on his way. He then moved farther east, crossing the Jhelum River, which the Greeks named the Hydaspes, then the Chenab, the Ravi, and finally the Beas River (the Hyphasis). The Greeks had little knowledge of the geography of India, since their sources were little more reliable than the Indikos of Ktesias of Knidos, written in 396 B. C.E.
At this point Alexander wished to proceed to conquer the known world, but his troops mutinied, and he returned to the Jhelum River, where a fleet of ships was under construction. with these, he sailed down the Indus River. His journey to the sea met stout resistance from the local tribe known as the Agalassoi, who mustered, it is said, more than 40,000 men. But Alexander defeated them and, on reaching the coast, divided his forces, one group traveling with the fleet and the other by land to the west. The two parties met again at modern
Hormuz, in Iran, after one of the most extraordinary military campaigns.
EFFECTS OF HIS CONQUESTS
Although of brief duration, Alexander’s Indian adventure had deep-seated repercussions. He was a highly educated person who took scientists and historians in his entourage to learn about and record the countries and peoples he conquered. He actively encouraged the adoption of local ways and intermarriage between Macedonians and local women. Most profoundly, he settled his veterans in new settlements, and these people established outposts of Greek culture.
Alexander died of a fever in Babylon in 323 b. c.e., and his far-flung empire was divided among his leading generals. seleucus i nicator ruled the eastern provinces, founding the Seleucid Empire that he ruled from Babylon. bactria, located between the Amu Dar’ya River and the Hindu Kush Mountains, was part of this empire from about 300 to 250 b. c.e. It then achieved independence and extended its domain to incorporate parts of modern Pakistan, including the city of Taxila. The Bactrian capital, Baktra (modern balkh), was a noted center for trade and for buddhism, which had been established there. Another Greek Bactrian foundation is located at ay khanum on the upper Amu Dar’ya River in Afghanistan.
Hellenistic influence originating from the campaigns of Alexander the Great continued with the foundation of nonGreek states. Thus the Scythians, or Sakas, who conquered the Bactrian states in the late second century b. c.e., adopted many Greek traditions, including coinage with Greek script, Greek titles, and Greek methods of city planning. This pattern became even more pronounced when the Parthians succeeded the Scythians as rulers of the upper Indus and its tributaries. Hellenistic influence was still to be found under the Kushans, not least in the architectural features of their city at surkh-kotal in Afghanistan. The most enduring Greek influence in the region, however, was the GANDHARA school of art founded in modern Pakistan. While drawing on Buddhism for its themes, Gandharan art owed a deep artistic debt to Greek sculptural traditions.
Further reading: Fuller, J. E C. The Generalship of Alexander the Great. New York: DeCapo Press, 1989; Green, P Alexander of Macedon. London: Penguin Books, 1992; Worthington, I. Alexander the Great. London: Rout-ledge, 2003.
Alikasudaro (late fourth-third century b. c.e.) Alikasu-daro is a king mentioned in the rock edicts of Asoka, the third king of the Maurya Empire (c. 324-c. 200 b. c.e.) in India. The name is thought to refer to Alexander of Epirus, a minor Greek ruler (r. 272-258 b. c.e.). The inscription helps to date asoka to the period between 268 and 235 B. C.E.
Allahdino Allahdino is a small settlement of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION in modern southern Pakistan. It lies 15 kilometers (9 mi.) from the Arabian Sea and covers an area of only one hectare (2.5 acres). The finds from this site reveal the degree of wealth characteristic of this civilization, even in provincial settlements. The mound rises about three meters above the surrounding countryside. Three phases of occupation have been identified since the excavations by W Fairservis in 1976. There was no evidence for a defensive wall, but the internal layout of the houses, all of which belong in time to the mature Indus civilization of the later third millennium B. C.E., shows remarkable evidence for town planning even in a site that barely exceeds 100 meters (330 ft.) in any direction. Houses were laid out on an east-northeast to west-southwest orientation and were constructed of mud brick on stone foundations. They were equipped with stone-lined wells and drains. The presence of SEALS indicates participation in trade, and the recovery of gold and silver ornaments hints that the site was involved in the exchange of precious jewelry. This indication is highlighted by a jar containing a remarkable belt made of long carnelian beads interspersed with beads of copper, silver bead necklaces, agate beads, and items of gold.
Altyn Tepe Altyn Tepe, the site of an ancient settlement in the lower Tedzhen River Valley of Turkmenistan where the river forms the Geoksiur Oasis, was occupied as early as the fifth millennium B. C.E. This area of Turkmenistan has a long and important cultural sequence that culminated in the formation of urban communities as old as the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION.
EARLIEST SETTLEMENTS
By the fifth and early fourth millennia B. C.E., this oasis region had agricultural settlements in which barley and wheat were cultivated on the basis of an IRRIGATION system, and cattle were raised. A copper industry was in place, and there is also much evidence of weaving. Evidence from Altyn Tepe has shown that during the midfourth millennium B. C.E., irrigation agriculture was well established, and trade relations were carrying gold and silver, carnelian, TURQUOISE, and LAPIS LAZULI to the site. The late aeneolithic period toward the end of the fourth and start of the third millennia B. C.E. saw further achievements, including the domestication of the camel, the use of wheeled carts, irrigation employing channels up to three kilometers (1.8 mi.) in length, and the construction of multiroomed houses for a protourban population. The site was now ringed by a mud-brick wall up to two meters (6.6 ft.) in height, enclosing an area of 25 hectares (62.5 acres). Figurines of terra-cotta depicted helmeted warriors.
LATER CULTURES
The culture of the oases in Turkmenistan also expanded to the east and south. At the site of Sarazm on the Zerafshan
River Delta, rich burials included gold and carnelian grave offerings. The third millennium saw extraordinary cultural developments at Altyn Tepe and related sites, as trade with the Indus Valley burgeoned. During the Early Bronze Age, Altyn Tepe boasted a huge entrance gateway 15 meters (49.5 ft.) wide, with room for both pedestrians and wheeled vehicles. There was a temple precinct within; rich graves equipped with stone lamps may well have held leading priestly figures. Stamp SEALS made of terra-cotta and bronze probably indicated private ownership, and both industry and agriculture developed. There were copper foundries and specialized ceramic workshops and kilns, while grapes were added to the range of cultivated crops.
The heyday of the Indus Valley civilization saw further evidence of exchange: Two Harappan-style seals, one bearing a swastika motif and the other a brief written text, were found at Altyn Tepe, and an eagle amulet has clear Harappan parallels. Excavations indicate that there were at least three social groups, on the basis of spatially delimited grades of housing and burials. The poorer graves incorporated few ceramic offerings, and the dead were wrapped in reed mats. The rich, however, lived in fine houses and were interred in woolen shrouds, accompanied by stamps with eagle, leopard, and goat motifs; statuettes; religious symbols, and fine exotic bead necklaces and belts. Industrially the town saw specialized production of silver ornaments and mirrors, arsenic and lead bronzes, and a massive output of pottery vessels, as one kiln among many had a potential annual output of up to 20,000 vessels. By this juncture the population was in the vicinity of 7,000, and the Turkmenian oasis sites were in regular contact with the civilizations to the south.
Ama Ama, a site of the YAYOI culture on Honshu Island in Japan, covers the period from about 150 b. c.e. until 300 C. E. It is located on an eminence commanding a broad alluvial plain on the eastern shore of the Inland Sea. Because the earliest establishment of Yayoi culture did not occur on this part of the island of Honshu, the site represents the expansion of agricultural communities east from Kyushu to the area that was to become the heartland of Japanese civilization. The Yayoi culture itself was the result of a major infusion of influence, and almost certainly immigrant groups, from the mainland of Korea. It saw the adoption of wet rice cultivation, a knowledge of bronze and iron production, and intensified trade, following the long period of hunter-gatherer dominance on the archipelago, known as the Jomon culture.
The excavations at Ama revealed a long occupation period, beginning with the late phase of Early Yayoi. This site was afflicted by a major flood that laid down a thick deposit over the settlement, but it was reoccupied during Middle and Late Yayoi. The investigations have revealed that the village was defined by ditches, which, in the early period of occupation, covered an area of 70 by 110
Meters. This was not a large settlement by any means, but the waterlogged conditions have preserved organic remains that reveal intensive rice cultivation as the mainstay of the economy. The wooden agricultural implements include large spades and hoes made on the site, to judge from the unfinished wooden tools and wood shavings that have survived. Friction with other communities, of which many are known in this strategic area, is suggested by the presence of bows and arrows made of stone or, in one instance, bronze. There are also stone spearheads. The rice was probably ground on milling stones, and wooden pounders have been recovered. Wood was also converted into cups and bowls, along with ceramic vessels whose styles relate to those typical of the earlier Yayoi on Kyushu sites to the west.
Burials in the settlement were found in special ditched enclosures, each probably representing a social unit at the site. The dead were interred in wooden-plank coffins, but there are insufficient findings to account for the duration of the settlement, and it is likely that poorer members of the community were buried with less ceremony beyond the confines of the village. There are many sites of the Middle and Late Yayoi phases in the vicinity of Ama, and it has been suggested that these probably represent new settlements, founded as the original population expanded. Some of these villages were significantly larger than Ama, again indicating population expansion on the basis of intensive wet rice cultivation.
Amaravati Amaravati is a major Buddhist religious complex inspired by the rulers of the satavahana DYNASTY (late first century b. c.e.-third century C. E.), located on the Krishna River in modern Andhra Pradesh state, southern India. It is part of the ancient settlement of Dharanikota and derives its name from the temple of Amaresvara, mentioned in Amaravati period inscriptions.
It was first recognized as a major site in 1796, when a Colonel McKenzie visited it and found it still intact. However, on his return, in 1816, he found that the complex had been plundered by villagers for building material. Research at Amaravati began under Alexander Rea in the early years of the 20th century, and the results were published in 1905. Rea was able to uncover the circular pavement around the great stupa and identify the foundations to the gateways. The complex incorporated monasteries and Buddhist temples embellished with outstanding sculptured reliefs dating from the second century b. c.e. to the third century C. E.
The stupa at Amaravati was one of the largest in India, originally standing about 30 meters (99 ft.) high, with a base 50 meters (165 ft.) in diameter. Tradition has it that the stupa covers sacred relics of the Buddha himself. It probably originated during the reign of asoka (d. 238 or 232 b. c.e.), a king of the Maurya dynasty, and now
Amaravati was one of the great early centers of Buddhism in India. Although only the base of the great stupa survives, its splendor can still be seen in this relief carving, dating to the second century C. E. (Scala/Art Resource, NY)
Survives as a ruined base, for the superstructure was quarried during the 18th and 19th centuries as a source of lime mortar. The original appearance of this now ruined stupa can be seen on a relief on one of the temple railings. It had a huge dome on a cylindrical base. some of the marble reliefs were taken to the British Museum in London, England, and others were taken to Madras in India.
The reliefs depict superb narrative scenes taken from tales in the life of the Buddha that survive in the so-called jataka stories. The style embraced the move from representing the Buddha symbolically—for instance, by an empty throne—to depicting him in human form, and the two types of scenes are even found on the same carving. The name Amaravati has been given to the style of art that developed there, a style that had a wide influence, extending into sri Lanka and southeast Asia.
Amarendrapura Amarendrapura refers to a city named in an important inscription from sdok kak thom in Thailand, which dates to the mid-11th century. It states that jayavarman ii of Angkor in Cambodia founded a city at a location named Amarendrapura. Identification of sites known only from epigraphic evidence often resembles a wild-goose chase. some authorities have placed Amarendrapura at banteay choeu, a large rectangular earthwork that encloses temples of the same period, such as AK YUM and Prei Kmeng, at the western end of the WESTERN BARAY at Angkor. However, Banteay Choeu is now regarded as a partially completed reservoir.
Amrita 9
Amatya The amatya, described as one of the vital components of a kingdom in the political treatise known as the ARTHASASTRA of KAUTILYA, were those who administered the functions of the state in India and were maintained as a civil service by the royal treasury Kautilya wrote his treatise on statehood during the fourth century B. C.E. as an adviser to King candragupta maurya, whose kingdom was centered on the city of PATALIPUTRA (modern Patna).
Ampil Rolum This site in Cambodia is one of the most extensive of the surviving centers of the chenla period (550-800 C. E.). It incorporates three brick sanctuaries with fine sandstone lintels and an inscription dated to the seventh or eighth century C. E. The corpus of Chenla inscriptions records the names of a series of centers, but it is not possible to identify the precise location of all of them. In the case of Ampil Rolum, however, one inscription noted that a king with a name ending in - aditya (the rising sun) ruled in “this city of Bhavapura.”
Amri Amri is a settlement mound located in the lower Indus Valley of India. Excavations in 1929 by N. G. Majumdar and again by J. M. Casal in 1959-62 have uncovered evidence for a long period of occupation from at least 3000 B. C.E. until the end of the INDUS valley civilization in the second millennium B. C.E. The sequence has been divided into three major phases. The first phase, with four subdivisions, provides vital evidence for cultural developments leading to the mature civilization of the Indus Valley
Changing pottery styles provide the basis for the division of Period I, which has yielded evidence for a mud-brick wall and structures that were regularly rebuilt on earlier foundations. Some of these contain small celllike rooms that might, as at mehrgarh, have been grain stores. The subsistence economy was based on the cultivation of barley and domestic cattle, but the earlier phases also contain numerous gazelle bones. There was a flourishing ceramic industry, and chert was used in the manufacture of blades. Rare carnelian and marine-shell beads indicate an exchange network. Amri has given its name to the Amri-Nal phase in the early development of the Indus Valley civilization, and many further sites belonging to this phase have been found, some little more than small hamlets, others more substantial, like Amri itself.
During the fourth and last phase of Period I, there is evidence of a transitional phase to the Indus civilization. However, Amri was never a major site, and the hallmarks of exchange and manufacturing, such as seals, clay sealings, and weights, were rare. The last major period of occupation belongs to the so-called jhukar culture, traditionally dated to about 2000-1800 B. C.E.
Amri-Nal Amri-Nal is the name given to one of the four phases of the Early Harappan culture. The sites of this phase concentrate in Sind and Baluchistan in Pakistan, and radiocarbon dates place them within the period 3200-2600 B. C.E. The vast majority of the 88 sites known fall below five hectares (12.5 acres) in extent; some sites a little more than 1,000 square meters (1,200 sq. ft.) in area might have been temporary camp sites. Only a few settlements extended beyond 10 hectares, the largest, DHOLAVIRA, probably covering three times that area.
The principal exposures of archaeological material are from the eponymous sites. Excavations at amri, particularly the second phase of research under Jean-Marie Casal in 1959-62, revealed a sequence of superposed building phases in stone and mud brick. Some structures were domestic, but the smaller rectangular buildings are thought to have been granaries. There is also evidence for the manufacture of jewelry, including shell bangles, and a rich ceramic industry. The faunal remains reveal a marked predominance of domestic cattle bones, along with the bones of sheep and goats.
The site of Nal covers nearly six hectares. Excavations in 1925 by Harold Hargreaves followed a number of earlier investigations dating back to 1903, attracted perhaps by the outstanding ceramics from this site, decorated with animal paintings that include images of cattle and gazelles. Again stone and mud-brick structural foundations were traced, as well as evidence for the manufacture of beads in agate, carnelian, shell, and lapis lazuli. Copper was also cast at the site into small tanged spearheads and chisels. Gregory Possehl has suggested that the expansion of Amri-Nal sites southeast into Gujarat in India might have been due to a predominantly pastoral economy. The practice of transhumance (seasonal movement of herders and flocks) between the river valleys and surrounding uplands in the core region is highly likely, for the two major types of pottery are present beyond their areas of manufacture. It has also been suggested that it was during this important period that irrigation began to be applied to agriculture. Some Amri-Nal sites, such as BALAKOT, have a coastal orientation.
See also Indus valley civilization.
Amrita In Indian mythology, amrita was ambrosia, the food of the gods, conferring immortality on those who drank it. It had very early origins, mentioned in the Hindu epics the MAHABHARATA (500 B. C.E.-400 C. E.) and the Ramayana (first century b. c.e.). Its legendary origin involved a battle between the Hindu gods and demons for its possession. The outcome was unsuccessful, so on the advice of Vishnu, the gods and demons cooperated by taking opposite ends of a sacred naga snake that was coiled around Mount Mandara. They thus spun the mountain, churning the ocean of milk below as they did so. The mountain began to collapse into the ocean, and
Vishnu descended in the guise of a turtle to support the mountain until the elixir was obtained. The battle that followed saw the gods victorious.
The CHURNING OF THE OCEAN OF MILK was a popular theme in the Hindu religion of Angkor in Cambodia and was splendidly portrayed on a relief at ANGKOR WAT. The actual city of Angkor Thom, constructed by King JAYAVAR-MAN VII in the early 13th century C. E., was probably a metaphorical representation of this theme. The gods and the demons are seen flanking the entrance causeways; under this metaphor, the BAYON temple in the center of the city, the resting place for the ashes of the king, represented Mount Mandara.
Ananda (fifth century b. c.e.) Ananda, a cousin of the Buddha, became his faithful personal attendant and is said to have followed the Buddha as a shadow, ensuring that his needs were always met.
After his enlightenment, Buddha had no permanent attendant for a period of 20 years. When aged 55, however, he selected Ananda, the only one of his close followers who had not offered his services when the Buddha let it be known that he sought such a person to assist him. Ananda accepted this demanding position subject to eight self-denying conditions, including that he was not to be permitted to share any of the special offerings of clothing or food made to his cousin or to stay in the Buddha’s own quarters.
Ananda outlived the Buddha by many years, finally dying at the age of about 120. It is recorded that his death took place on a barge in the middle of the Ganges (Ganga) River, and that at his own request his body was divided into two so that the rulers of the northern and southern banks could each have a share. His remains were then covered by stupas, both of which were later visited by the Chinese monk and pilgrim xuanzang (602-64 C. E.).
Anandacandra (ruled early eighth century b. c.e.) Anan-dacandra was the king of ARAKAN (now Rakhine) in western Myanmar (Burma). He was known for his generosity to Buddhist establishments but also favored Hindu deities. Anandacandra is best known as the author of a major addition to an inscription from shit-thaung, which sets out the names of his 18 predecessors and describes the origin of the royal line with the god siva. His capital was located at vesali, a huge walled city surrounded by a moat and containing a walled palace precinct. His inscriptions record his foundation of Buddhist monasteries and reliquaries, together with donations of land, slaves, and draft animals. But he also favored Hindu deities and founded temples for their gods that bore his name. His state was strategically placed to command the passage of goods and people across the Bay of Bengal from India, and he not only received many Buddhist monks but also sent fine gifts to the monastic communities of sri Lanka. He was the guardian of the law and, as did the Gupta kings of India, followed a policy of commuting capital sentences.
See also gupta empire.
Ananda temple The Ananda temple, built in the reign of King KYANZITTHA (1084-1112 C. E.), is an outstanding example of Buddhist temple building at pagan in modern Myanmar (Burma). It lies about 200 meters (660 ft.) to the east of the city walls. It is of a cruciform plan, each axis being 87 meters (287 ft.) long. The central shrine is covered by a gilded stupa. Many decorated plaques on the temple terraces show narrative scenes on the life of the Buddha from birth to enlightenment. The interior walls were formerly covered in frescoes depicting jataka stories of the Buddha’s life, but these were covered later by a plain whitewash. A statue of Kyanzittha himself is also found in the temple.
There is a story that the king encountered a group of Indian monks begging for alms, and he asked them where they were from. They answered that they had traveled from a cave monastery at Nandamula Hill in India. He asked them to describe their temple and was so struck by their words that he ordered the Ananda temple to be built according to what they had said. It was completed, again according to tradition, in 1090.
Charles Duroiselle, writing in 1913, pointed to INSCRIPTIONS from the vicinity of Pagan that contained an account of the consecration of the Ananda temple. The king, the texts say, seated on the back of a magnificent elephant, arrived with members of his court. A sacred white elephant was embellished with fine trappings and gems. Another tradition, supported by the words of old songs surviving on palm-leaf documents, has it that the king entered riding his white elephant and that the architect was executed lest he build another temple to rival the Ananda.
Anastylosis In Greek, anastylosis means “the reerection of columns.” The technique was applied to the historic monuments of Indonesia under Dutch colonial rule during the 20th century. When monuments of brick, laterite, or sandstone have collapsed or have become overgrown with vegetation, the issue of restoration and conservation is a delicate one. In the case of the ta prohm temple at ANGKOR, in Cambodia, for example, the monument was left to the mercy of the jungle, and the massive roots and tree trunks that have invaded the stones are one of the major attractions for visitors. In the fullness of time, however, the temple will inevitably be smothered and destroyed as the vegetation prizes apart the component stones.
The technique involves first the clearance of invasive vegetation and the preparation of a site plan showing the
Anavatapta, Lake ii
The Ananda temple at Pagan, Myanmar (Burma), was constructed under the order of King Kyanzittha (r. 1084-1112 C. E.). The king arrived at the consecration on a sacred white elephant, and it is said that his architect was killed so that he could never build another temple to rival its magnificence. (Borromeo/Art Resource, NY)
Location of all stones. The surviving walls are then removed, with the relative position of each stone or brick numbered for later replacement. The foundations can then be examined and, where necessary, strengthened with permanent materials. The stones are then replaced, with gaps being filled by new stones cut roughly but not finished along the lines of the original ones, their recent origin discreetly displayed.
The first major application of the anastylosis method in Cambodia saw the reconstruction of banteay srei under Henri Marchal. The success of this operation led to similar work at Angkor itself, particularly at neak pean and banteay SAMREAY. Anastylosis is now being widely applied, as may be seen at Angkor. In Thailand the sanctuaries of PHI-MAI, MUANG TAM, Phnom Rung, and phnom wan have all been conserved by this technique; perhaps the most famous of all reconstructions took place at borobudur in Java.
Anavatapta, Lake This lake, also known as Lake Ano-tatta, lying north of the Himalayas, holds an important place in Buddhist writings as having miraculous curative powers. The name means “a lake without heat or trouble.” Although its location cannot be identified, it was said to be surrounded by mountains so that its waters were never exposed to the Sun or Moon. The lake, square in shape, was supposedly the source of four rivers: the Sita, Ganges (Ganga), Sindhu, and Vaksu. The Ganges is said to emerge from the golden elephant gate at the eastern end of the lake. The Sindhu (Indus) leaves the lake through the silver ox gate at the southern bank. The Vaksu (Amu Dar’ya or Oxus) originates via the horse gate at the west, and the Sita (Tarim River) begins at the lion gate on the northern bank. The lake was crystal clear, with no turbidity. Early Buddhist sources declare that the lake could be visited only by the enlightened. Early texts ascribe various qualities to its water. One describes how Queen Maya, the mother of the Buddha, was taken there to be bathed and purified. Afterward, she was dressed in divine clothes and flowers and conceived the Buddha. This scene is depicted on a sculpture at Amaravati in eastern India as early as the second century c. e. In the third century B. C.E., Emperor ASOKA had water from the lake carried to him daily for his own use and for gifts to his most learned followers. The water was also used by Asoka in royal consecration, because it was deemed to bestow divinity: He sent lake water to King Tissa of Sri Lanka for this purpose, and both kings took the title Devanampiya (Beloved of the gods).
It is thought that the temple of NEAK PEAN and the JAYATATAKA baray (reservoir) at angkor in Cambodia reproduced the lake. At the temple, water emerges through the mouths of, respectively, an ox, a horse, a lion, and an elephant, the sources of the four rivers and a crucial clue in any interpretation of the purpose of the Angkorian barays. It is widely held that they were primarily used for irrigation, but the representation of Lake Anavatapta makes it plausible to see the Jayatataka as a means of gaining merit for the king.
See also buddhism.
Anawrahta (r. 1044-1077) Anawrahta a king of Burma, is best known for reinforcing devotion to buddhism by attacking the ruler of the city of THATON, Shin Arahan, and taking sacred texts, senior monks, and members of the royal family back to Pagan.
The king of Thaton was sent to serve in the Shwezigon temple in the city of pagan. Seeking other sacred Buddhist relics, Anawrahta led his forces to the cities of Prome and arakan (modern Rakhine), where he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the venerable mahamuni statue of the Buddha, the only one thought to have been modeled after the actual likeness of the Buddha himself. He also had many temples and stupas, as well as irrigation works, constructed. It is recorded that he died after being gored by a buffalo.
World History
