Chongdi (143-145 c. e.) Chongdi, “modest emperor,” was the eighth emperor of the Eastern Han Dynasty of China.
The son of Emperor Shundi of the Eastern HAN dynasty, he acceded to the throne in 144 c. e. at the age of only five months.
Choson In the northern Korean Peninsula, according to the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), the state of Choson was ruled by a king, aided by several ranks of ministers, and protected by an army under the command of military officers. The rulers instituted irrigation measures to improve agriculture and promoted trade in horses, iron, and salt. However, in 109-108 b. c.e. a Han Chinese army invaded the region and after a long campaign took the walled capital of wangxian from the third king of Choson, Youqu. The area taken was so large that it was carved up into four commanderies, the longest lived being known as lelang.
The Korean state of Choson had lasted for three generations, from about 195 b. c.e. until its conquest by the Chinese HAN dynasty in 108 b. c.e. There are several myths as to its origins, the most probable one that a Chinese named Wiman moved into northern Korea with his followers, overcame the local leaders, and established a state with its capital in the vicinity of Pyongyang. Eor the three centuries preceding 108 b. c.e., the area centered on the Yalu River had lain to the east of the Chinese state of YAN, and there had been much influence and exchange between the two regions. Indeed, the name Choson in Chinese means “dawn fresh,” pointing to its position to the east of Yan. However, in 221 b. c.e., the warring STATES PERIOD in China came to an end, leading first to the establishment of the qin dynasty and then to the long rule of the Western HAN dynasty emperors. This more peaceful period in Chinese politics, allied to the unification of China, had profound effects on the polities lying on its south, east, and west margins. The Han emperor WUDI adopted an expansionist imperial policy, leading to the replacement of local leaders by provinces or comman-deries ruled by centrally appointed bureaucrats.
Chu The state of Chu in China underwent many changes over the course of its history. Traditionally, this wealthy state with an opulent material culture was located to the south of the central plains, and Chinese historians such as sima qian and ban gu compared the people with barbarians who practiced strange religious rituals and lived a life of easy affluence. This perception may well have been based on the mild climate enjoyed by the Chu and their concentration on rice cultivation rather than the millet that dominated in the cold north. Still far too little is known of the Chu people and their origins, but archaeological research in the Chang (Yangtze) Valley, notably the recovery of written records from Chu tombs, is beginning to redress this situation.
Thus it is now increasingly evident that early complex societies developed as early in the central Chang Valley as in the Huang (Yellow) River Basin, if not earlier. This is seen at such early town or city sites as chengtoushan. The earliest historic records of a distinctive Chu culture date to the late shang state (1200-1045 b. c.e.), and there exists a graph showing a foot in brambles, which designates the Chu. During the western zhou dynasty (1045-771 B. C.E.), the Chu were described as southern barbarians, and military campaigns were mounted to secure booty and seek out sources of copper. One such inscription is from the Ling YI. This bronze vessel was looted by grave robbers from a site near luoyang in 1929 and states in its inscription that “the king attacked the elder of Chu.” This refers to King Zhao (r. c. 977/75-957 B. C.E.), who led a military campaign against the ruler of Chu. The upshot of this was the death of King Zhao in a failed campaign, allegedly by drowning when the bridge over the Han River collapsed, taking the king with it. This is confirmed by a second text on the Yiyu gui, which states that the Yiyu participated in the king’s southern campaign.
EXPANSION OF CHU
The succeeding Spring and Autumn period (770-476 B. C.E.) saw the Chu fully enter the historic stage. This situation resulted largely from the increasingly ritual rather than politically powerful role of the Eastern Zhou court at Luoyang, which allowed regional states to compete for leadership. Chu was not slow to take up the challenge, and although it has not proved possible definitively to define the successive capitals of Danyang and Ying, they were almost certainly located well north of the Chang River in West Hubei and southwest Henan provinces. For example, in 703 B. C.E. Xiong Yi of Chu took for himself the title of king, while early Chu inscriptions make it evident that the kings regarded themselves as legitimized by divine authority, known as the mandate of heaven. From this base, with alternating periods of success and defeat, the Chu expanded their kingdom considerably. The wealth of Chu at this juncture can be seen in the rich tomb of Zeng Hou Yi at LEIGUDUN, Hubei province. Dating to 433 b. c.e., the mortuary offerings as listed on the bamboo-slip inventory run to 6,600 entries, including 43 chariots. The assemblage of bronzes from the four main chambers weighed 10 tons, but perhaps the most interest has been attached to the two magnificent nested coffins. The outer specimen was built of lacquered wood over a bronze framework and was embellished with many geometric designs. The innermost was also of lacquered wood, and some designs are thought to represent windows and doors. Despite such wealth, from about 400 B. C.E. Chu fell into a decline, largely due to the growing military power of the state of qin, and finally collapsed at the end of the warring states period.
The material remains of Chu culture, like the historic record, had been fugitive until the beginning of the spring
And Autumn period (770-476 b. c.e.). During the ensuing three centuries, the bronzes placed in the graves developed from forms possibly inspired from the north into distinctive vessels incorporating lavish decorations of strange beasts, cloud patterns, coiled serpents, and phoenixes. The preference for bronze vessels as tomb furniture during this early period is best seen at the necropolis of Xichuan, the inscriptions ascribing them to members of the elite during the late seventh century b. c.e. Bronzes from this site and the slightly later cemetery of Xiasi provide a powerful indication of the quantity of bronze available and the audacious skill of the specialist workshops. Tomb 2, which contained the remains of an aristocrat named Wu, dates to 552 b. c.e. The grave goods included a richly decorated bronze altar more than a meter in length, weighing nearly 100 kilograms (220 lbs.).
World History
