St. Jerome was born at Stridon near Aquileia. He studied in Rome, learning rhetoric and Latin literature prior to becoming a Christian. After baptism he traveled to Gaul and elsewhere in the west before returning to Aquileia to devote himself to an ascetic’s life. Jerome (c. 374) embarked on a trip to the East, stopping at Antioch, where he dreamed that Christ spoke to him, condemning his preference for Roman literature to Christianity, with the words: “Ciceronianus es, non Christianus”—“Thou art a Ciceronian, not a Christian.” The deserts of Syria seemed a suitable place to repent, and there, living as a hermit for four or five years, he mastered Hebrew. ordination came while visiting Antioch, followed by a trip to Constantinople.
Further journeys brought Jerome to Rome in 382, where he came to the attention of Pope Damasus, serving as his personal secretary and gaining wide popularity with the Roman nobility, particularly with the ladies. Friendships developed with such noblewomen as Marcella and Paula and the latter’s two daughters, Blaesilla and Eustochium. Marcella, Paula, and Eustochium were later canonized, proving the innocence of his relationship with them.
Damasus died in 385, and Jerome departed for the East. In the company of Paula and Eustochium, he made visits to Antioch, Palestine, and Egypt. In 386, he settled in Bethlehem. The rest of his life was spent in strict study and in scholarly pursuits. In his writings, Jerome used every lesson in his early education to carve for himself a place of high intellectual honor within the early church. His translation of the Bible, commenced at the suggestion of Damasus, was the highlight of his career. He translated the Bible into Latin, revising and improving translations already in existence in a series of versions. The Four Gospels and the psalterium vetus were transcribed, followed by the protocanonical sections of the old Testament, from the original Hebrew and at a cost of some 15 years’ labor (c. 390-405). The church later recognized these efforts as essential to the writing of the Vulgate.
Other works were numerous. There were commentaries on the old and New Testament, in which he displayed his knowledge of Hebrew and tradition, and a continuation of the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius, brought down to 378. De viris illustribus, compiled in 392, examined the ecclesiastical writers of the Christian past. Jerome’s letters were sent to the most important church figures of the time. He involved himself in the fiercest controversies of the day, battling with Jovinian and Vigilantius and entering the heated debates on ari-ANISM. ORiGEN’s theology and pelagianism also received his attention. Though he once called Rome a Babylon, its sacking by Alaric in 410 caused Jerome terrible sorrow, marking as it did the death of the Roman world. He lived on another 10 years, continuing to write until his death.
Jerusalem The sacred city of Judaism, and later of Christianity as well. Jerusalem was the very heart of the Jewish world. Its destruction in 70 c. e. ensured the dispersal of the Jews within the Roman Empire, and its rebirth as a Christian center ushered in a new age for the Holy Land.
“I shall wipe Jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish, wiping
It and turning it upside down.”
Chronicles, Book I, 16:41.
Jerusalem was an ancient city, built, it was said, by the Canaanite tribe of the Jebusites. In 1050 B. C.E., King David captured it and made it his great capital. The name came from Hierusaleme, or “Holy City,” and Jerusalem was, for the Jews, truly sacred. Their kings, including Solomon, lived within its walls until 588, when King Nebuchadnezzar besieged it and wholly enslaved the Jewish nation. Although Cyrus granted in 538 b. c.e. to the Jews the right to rebuild the city, the next centuries brought new masters and new hardships. Finally, an independence of sorts was gained by Judas Maccabaeus (167-164 B. C.E.) and the Hasmonaean line of high priests. Internal debate led to civil war in 63 B. C.E., when the sons of the Hasmonaean King Jannaeus Alexander, Aristobulus, and Hyrcanus, used Jerusalem as a battleground for supremacy.
Appropriately, given subsequent dealings, Rome’s first introduction to Jerusalem was in a siege. pompey the GREAT, newly arrived in the region, immediately besieged the city in 63 to end the civil strife. Jerusalem fell and never again would know complete freedom. Hyrcanus was allowed to remain high priest, but within the city political power was held by antipater of idumaea, the royal minister who not only achieved personal supremacy in Judaea but also had one son, Phasael, named governor of Jerusalem and another son, herod the great, appointed governor of Galilee. This Idumaean won the trust of Julius Caesar and was granted the right to fortify the city walls in circa 47 B. C.E.
Strong walls could not prevent Caesar’s assassin, CASSIUS, from plundering the temple to fund his campaign against Marc Antony nor could they keep the parthians from launching an invasion of Judaea in 40. Jerusalem fell to the parthians, who placed the Hasmon-aean claimant Antigonus on the throne. Herod fled to Rome, returning with Roman legions, and in July of 37 B. C.E. took back Jerusalem and became the king of the Jews.
Just as the entire Judaean realm was given new cities and defensive constructions, so was Jerusalem fortified, including the Tower of Antonia. Relations with Rome were generally cordial at the beginning of Herod’s reign, but deteriorated as he grew repressive and estranged from his people. The Jews disliked having an Idumaean as a monarch, and riots broke out in the streets. The problems did not end with Herod’s death in 4 b. c.e., for Augustus named his son Archelaus as ruler of a much reduced kingdom (iudaea, idumaea, and samaria). More unrest and violence, most notably in Jerusalem, attracted Roman attention, and in 6 C. E. Augustus acquiesced to Jewish requests that Archelaus be removed. Henceforth, Judaea was an imperial province.
Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon, from a 16th-century engraving (Hulton/GettyArchive)
Caesarea became the administrative seat of the procurators for the province because Jerusalem, with its multitude of religious groups, its volatile nature and long history of violence, was not the best place for a Roman overseer. However, Roman government was unpopular everywhere in the region, and in 66 C. E., despite the presence of legions, Jerusalem was once again the scene of rebellion. The actual conflagration began here, when Ges-sius Florus, procurator of Judaea, seized part of the temple treasury and then stood by while his troops plundered a part of the city. Florus wisely withdrew, allowing Agrippa II to try to stem the tide. When Jerusalem started a revolution, however, Palestine joined in, and the governor of Syria, Cestius Gallus, with the XII Legion, was defeated outside the city gates. This encouraged the rebels.
Jerusalem’s leaders now took command of the war, appointing Ananus, a former high priest, and Joseph, son of Gorion, to be co-leaders. They faced both internal and outside foes, as the zealots and inveterate haters of Rome took over key posts and filled the city with their followers. General Vespasian pacified most of the territory during a hard-fought period from February 67 to June 68. He was preparing to lay siege to Jerusalem, actually, when the civil war in Rome called a halt to all other activities.
The delay in Rome’s conquest of palestine aided Jerusalem very little, for the ambitious John of Gischala used gangs of zealots to massacre any moderates or opponents. Matters were made worse by the arrival of two more factions, those of Simon Bar Giora (Bargoia) and Eleazar, son of Simon. Vespasian became emperor in late 69 and in spring of 70, his son titus assumed control over the Palestinian legions. Jerusalem soon fell under attack, and the first of the city’s three great walls fell to Rome siegemasters by the end of May. In June, the Romans relentlessly drove on, smashing into the Tower of Antonia and moving against the Great temple. According to Josephus, Titus was firm against the destruction of the Temple, but he had no control over the disaster.
On August 30, 70 c. e. (9 Ab on the Jewish calendar, the date of Nebuchadnezzar’s burning of the earlier Temple), soldiers of Titus’s legions engaged in a struggle with the insurgents just outside of the Temple. One of the Romans, caught up in the fray, threw a firebrand into the building, and a fire broke out; quite probably Titus had ordered the burning. The following day, anyone caught within the boundaries was killed, and the treasury, gates, and porticos were also set on fire. All the valuables salvaged from the blaze were confiscated to be displayed in Rome for Titus’s triumph.
Still the defenders would not surrender, especially John of Gischala, who fled to the defenses of the Upper City Titus allowed his troops to sack and demolish the Lower City, and on September 8 launched his final assault. By the 26th, all of Jerusalem was on fire. Titus entered the ruined city a short time later, marveled at the magnificent towers and ordered that everything except the forts be demolished. The wrath of Rome was thus appeased, and the ancient city of Jerusalem was no more.
The Flavians refused to allow the rebuilding of the Temple, and the ruins of the city were left untouched, except for the areas directly around the site, which were farmed out to the followers of the legion, the X Fretensis, stationed in a camp there. The absence of the Temple had a profound effect upon the nature of Judaism. The Jews never forgot the Temple and never forgave the Romans for destroying it.
Thus, in 132, conspiracies were formed when a rumor was circulated that Hadrian intended to build a pagan city on the ruins of the ancient capital and Temple. The Jews were willing to pay their temple tax of two drachmas to Jupiter Capitolinus, but they would not tolerate a Roman building defiling the capital. Simon Bar Cochba led an unsuccessful war from 132 to 135 and was crushed by Julius Severus, Hadrian’s legate. The city was renamed Colonia Aelia Capitolina as a result of this revolt. A temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was erected on the site of the old Temple, and all Jews were forbidden entry into its perimeters. It stood in place for two centuries, while around it the Roman Empire changed.
Earliest Christianity found an audience in Jerusalem, where Sts. Peter and James led the community. From the time of Christ until the transformation of the Roman Empire into a Christian domain, Jerusalem attracted pilgrims who were eager to walk in Christ’s footsteps. As a result, there was a curious mixture of creeds, for the Jewish origins of the city could not be removed easily. There were pagans, soldiers, merchants, and Christians living among the Jews. Aelia Capitolina in the third and fourth centuries was probably neither a pleasant nor a safe place. Constantine the Great did little to change the overall status of the city directly. His Christianization of the world, however, led to larger numbers of pilgrims and a return to the name “Jerusalem.” Caesarea remained the administrative capital. Although there was an old church in Jerusalem, the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria and the bishop of Caesarea steadfastly opposed any ecclesiastical adornments for the see, if it meant a decline of their own powers. Jerusalem remained a mere bishopric, but a popular one, visited by thousands.
Two events in the fifth century changed the history of the city for all time. Juvenal, the bishop of Jerusalem (422-458), had worked for his entire episcopal career to aggrandize his position. He supported Cyril of Alexandria but turned on Cyril’s successor. Dioscorus, because he believed that would aid his cause. He was successful in this venture; at the Council of Chalcedon, Jerusalem received patriarchal rights equal to those of Antioch.
The city still needed financial support and imperial attention. That came with the visit of Aelia Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius II, in the spring of 438. She visited the city as an intellectual pilgrim and, when forced to depart Constantinople in semi-disgrace circa 444, she asked to live in Jerusalem. For the last years before her death in 460, she spent vast sums of money and great effort to improve the city. Hospitals, churches, monasteries, and the Basilica of St. Stephen were all erected because of her, and even a new wall was completed. Jerusalem finally offered an appearance of beauty and grandeur equal to its lofty spiritual position, a status it never lost, even in the face of new invaders and conquerors.
The best description of Jerusalem was written by Josephus in his Jewish War; he had examined the city prior to its destruction in 70 c. E. Aelia Capitolina would differ greatly from the original, and the Jerusalem of the fifth century and beyond changed once more. Jerusalem was located within the province of Judaea to the west of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea (by some 20 miles) and east of the Mediterranean Sea by about 35 miles. It was built upon two major hills, along a valley separating them. The greater of the hills was called King David (Mt. Zion), on which rested the original city, and to the southeast was Acre. Tyropoeon (the Valley of the Cheesemak-ers) was the name given to the valley. The hills placed Jerusalem in a strategically superior position, with steep ravines and tall cliffs on nearly every side. What nature made difficult to capture, the Jews made virtually impregnable, for upon the hills stood three mighty walls, reinforced by a stout system of towers.
The first wall, built to encompass the entire Lower and much of the Upper City, used the Hippicus and the Xystus Towers as its anchors. The second wall was shorter, enclosing only part of the northern sections. It no doubt began at Hippicus or Phasael Towers and stretched in a northerly direction to the Antonine Tower; perhaps it marked off the area of the city called Bezetha. Farther to the north was the third wall. It began also at Hippicus and formed a perimeter to Psephinus Tower, and then east, along the Damascus Gate to the Valley of Kedron.
Agrippa I, who intended it to protect the city, might have added an extension to the north for better defense, but he was discouraged from such construction because Emperor Claudius was already suspicious of his intentions. Archaeological evidence points to the possibility that Agrippa made better headway then previously believed in this regard. The towers of support included Psephinus in the north, with three towers built by Herod the Great: Hippicus, which spanned 80 Hebrew cubits and was quadrangular; Phasael, a duplicate of the Hippi-cus reaching 90 cubits (serving as the headquarters of the rebellion of 70 for John of Gischala); Mariamme, along the interior of the first wall, containing many luxurious living quarters, and 55 cubits. Another tower, the Xystus, is no longer evident. Finally, there was the Antonia Tower, or Castle, named after Marc Antony and built by Herod in the high area just above the Temple. It was spacious, with many rooms, baths, and courtyards. The Acts of the Apostles called it a castle. Its strategic value was obvious to the Romans, who permanently quartered a garrison of one cohort within it to watch for trouble within the Temple and in Bezetha.
The actual city of Jerusalem was divided into five sections: the Lower City, the Upper City, the Temple, Bezetha, and the area between the second and third walls. Acra was the hill upon which stood the Lower City, and it included aqueducts, the pool of Siloam, and the Ophlas. Through the Zion Gate one passed to the Upper City Here could be found more exclusive residences, including Herod’s Palace and the Palace of Agrippa. Just to the west was the large complex of offices and religious rooms, the Great Temple. Beyond that and its guardian, the Antonia Tower, was Bezetha, a very high part of the town, encroached on by new neighborhoods. Lastly, the district between the second and third walls opened outward upon the great Damascus Gate—the first part of the city to fall to Titus.
Jewish Rebellion See Jerusalem and judaea. Johannes See john the usurper.
John (fl. first century c. e.) Probable author of the Fourth Gospel, three Epistles, and the Book of Revelation, known as The Beloved Disciple
John was a Galilean, the son of Zebedee, brother of JAMES THE GREATER, with whom he was called Boanerges (Sons of thunder) in Mark. John was originally a fisherman and was probably a follower of John the Baptist before becoming a disciple of Jesus. Among the disciples he, James, and Peter, formed the inner circle around Jesus.
According to tradition, John traveled and took up residence in Ephesus. He was eventually exiled to Pat-mos. This exile took place during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81-96). It was here at Patmos that he wrote Revelation, subsequently returning under Emperor Nerva (96-98) to Ephesus, where he wrote the Gospel and Epistles. The church has long upheld the authorship of John concerning the Gospel, although debate has taken place in modern times among scholars who question the identity of John as author. Its apostolic nature, however, is not suspected. He apparently died at Ephesus of old age, the only disciple known with some reliability not to have been martyred, although some experts point to inconclusive evidence that he may have been put to death with St. James.
John Chrysostom (c. 347-407 c. e.) Bishop of Constantinople and a leading figure in early Christianity
St. John Chrysostom was born in Antioch, studying law under libanius the pagan orator. He tried to become a monk but was prevented by the health of his mother and then by his own deteriorating physical condition, the result of excessive asceticism from living as a hermit (c. 373-381). He elected, instead, to serve as a deacon in Antioch and in 386 was ordained a priest and began to preach to the Christians. He had found his true calling, for his sermons established him as the foremost Christian orator of his time, hence, the “Golden-mouthed,” a title that would distinguish him for all time. His homiletic topics varied from the Bible, to conscience to the moral reformation of the world.
He refused but was finally consecrated bishop of Constantinople in 398, entering the morass of intrigues and plots with an eye to spiritualizing the people. The Byzantine commoners adored his sermons about morality, but the local nobles, especially the ruthless Empress EUDOXIA, viewed the orations as personal attacks. When a rival, THEOPHILUS, the bishop of Alexandria, plotted to depose John in 403, the empress convened a council furthering Theophilus’s attacks by placing an overwhelming number of his allies on the panel. His supporters carried the day for him; John Chrysostom was condemned by the council and removed. A reconciliation with Eudoxia in the following year allowed him to return to Constantinople, but their feud soon erupted again. John was banished in June of 404 to Isauria in the Taurus Mountains, where he wrote letters to summon aid from the church. Pope Innocent I tried to help him, but Eudoxia prevailed. John lingered for years, despite the harsh conditions of his exile and his own physical frailties. Finally, in 407, he was moved to Pontus, forced to travel during bad weather. He died on September 14.
John of Gischala (d. after 70 c. e.) One of the leaders of the Jewish rebellion of 66-70 c. e.
John, the son of Levi, was mentioned by the historian JOSEPHUS in less than kind terms, for he was a political rival. He commanded brigands in Galilee and represented the war party of the zealots. Assigned to order the defenses of Gischala, John spent most of his time opposing the position of his superior, Josephus. When the local bands proved incapable of defeating the Roman units pursuing rebels in the districts of Judaea, John fled to JERUSALEM. Once in the city, he reassumed his place within the Zealots, engaging in bitter intrigue to remove all moderates and political opponents. Murder and terror were used to bring Jerusalem under his control. When the less fanatical elements tried to organize themselves, Idumaeans were admitted through the city gates. More bloodshed followed until Simon bargoia arrived to act as a counterpoint. The inhabitants of Jerusalem initially rejoiced at Simon’s intervention, but they soon realized that yet another internal struggle had begun.
Jerusalem’s tribal disputes could not take precedence over the fact that Titus was at the city gates with his legions. John could not prevent Roman invasion of Jerusalem and was subsequently captured. Unlike Simon, he did not face execution, but was imprisoned for life, perhaps out of recognition that his ambitions had ensured a Roman victory.
John the Usurper (d. 425 c. e.) Emperor of the West from 423 to 425
John, also called Johannes, came to the throne as a result of the internal power struggles in the Western Empire. Honorius (emperor from 395 to 423) had suffered under the influences of two rivals: The MAGISTER MlLlTUM, casti-NUS and the imperial half-sister, Galla Placidia. In 423 castinus won the war between them by having Placidia driven from Ravenna. His victory was short-lived, however, for Honorius died suddenly in August of that same year. To avoid the return of Galla Placidia from Constantinople with her young son (the eventual Valentinian III), Castinus chose to support a usurper, John.
John was of Gothic origins and was a civil servant before attaining the rank of primicerius notariorum, or chief notary He was thoroughly unmilitary and thus represented no threat to Castinus, who elevated him to the throne in September 423. John immediately attempted to win the approval of Theodosius II, but he already supported the claim of Valentinian. Any doubt was removed by the proclamation of Valentinian as Caesar. An army under the command of Ardaburius and aspar set out from Constantinople to remove John. On his side, the usurper claimed the support of Aetius, the magister who would become a major force in the near future. Initial successes against Ardaburius proved useless, for John could not follow them up against Aspar. Castinus, meanwhile, had disappeared entirely In 425, Ravenna fell to
Aspar before John’s Hunnic allies could arrive. He was taken to Aquileia, condemned to death by Galla Placidia and executed early in the summer of 425, after first being separated from his right hand, stuck on a donkey and paraded around a circus.
Josephus, Flavius (c. 37-c. 100 c. e.) The most famous Jewish historical writer of the Roman imperial era
Josephus earned the favor of Roman emperors but also authored two very useful and important histories of his own people. He was born in Jerusalem and came to support Rome and its supremacy in Palestine. Ties to his native land compelled him to join the cause of the Jews in the early stages of the Jewish rebellion (66-70 c. e.) He became an officer in charge of Galilee. His command was questioned and undermined by jealous rivals, preventing better defense of Jotapata in Galilee, which fell in 67, allowing Vespasian to capture him. Josephus was known to the conquering general and his son Titus. Vespasian spared Josephus, who predicted that one day he would be emperor. For the rest of the campaign Josephus remained at Titus’s side, watching the fall of Jerusalem in 70. He then traveled to Rome, receiving the freedom of the city and long-lasting imperial favor. He joined the Flavian family (hence the “Flavius”) as a client, enjoying the attentions of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian.
While in Rome, Josephus wrote his two major works: the Jewish Antiquities and the Jewish War The Antiquities covered Jewish history from the earliest times to 66 C. E. and the start of the rebellion. Organized into 20 books, it was finished in 93 or 94. His Jewish War was actually two books in one, a brief chronicle of events from about 170 b. c.e. to 66 c. e. and then a long, precise analysis of the war from 66 to 73 c. e. This history was first completed in 73 in Aramaic and rewritten in 75-76 in Greek. As there was much interest in such a contemporary topic, Josephus went to great lengths to stylize the narrative and to display his knowledge of Greek literature. The result was entirely successful, although in his seven books comprising the Jewish War, he chose to ignore the source material used and shown in the Antiquities several years later (93-94). Because of his involvement with Rome and his reputation, Josephus was attacked by other Jewish writers and figures of note (see justus). As a response to these critics he penned an autobiography. Further, to refute rampant anti-Semitism, he also composed the Contra Apionem (Against Apion), completed very late in his life.
Jotapianus (fl. third century c. e.) A usurper during the final years of the reign of Philip l (the Arab) (c. 248-249) Jotapianus may have been a relative of Emperor Severus Alexander and probably was a native of Syria. During the incompetent administration of Philip’s brother Gaius Julius PRISCUS as governor of Mesopotamia, Jotapianus rose up in commagene to declare himself an emperor.
Although he was quickly defeated, his usurpation pointed to the growing crisis within the Roman Empire.
Jove See jupiter.
Jovian (Flavius Jovinus) (c. 330-364 c. e.) Emperor (363-364) of Rome
Flavius Jovinus was born at Singidunum (modern Belgrade), the son of Varronianus, the comes domesticorum of Constantius II. He entered the protectores domestici, serving both Constantius and Julian the Apostate, and by 363 was the COMES of the PROTECTORES and held a position of some influence in Emperor Julian’s court, despite the fact that he was a Christian.
In June 363, while on campaign against Persia, Julian died. The army looked for a successor, and Jovian was chosen in a compromise agreement by officers. His first task as emperor was to bring his exhausted army back to Syria. Shapur II attacked, forcing a treaty that may not have been necessary. Jovian surrendered parts of Armenia and Mesopotamia. With an unsatisfactory peace concluded, Jovian arrived in Antioch, repudiating Julian’s pagan supremacy policy. Christianity was once more declared the religion of the empire. This done, and with oaths of allegiance from various parts of the empire, he set out for Constantinople. He never reached the city Somewhere between Galatia and Bithynia, he was found dead. The cause of his death was unclear, although he possibly suffered asphyxiation from poisonous charcoal in February. Ammianus Marcellinus described him as very tall, amiable, and careful in his appointments.
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