A new stage in the life of Turkish periodicals began in Egypt in 1927. As their history there entered its final phase, the atmosphere had changed considerably, both in Egypt and in Turkey. The political struggle in Turkey ended with the declaration of a republic in 1923, followed by the abolition of the Islamic caliphate in 1924; the conflict continued for a time, however, on the pages of the newspapers issued outside Turkey. Two of these newspapers were published in Cairo and addressed to the same readership, though for different purposes and with different goals. These were Musavat (Equality) and Muhadenet (Friendship).
The former first appeared on 7 February 1927, published by izmirli Hafiz ismail. He had formerly been editor-in-chief of a newspaper put out by the Unionists in Izmir, but he later moved to the ranks of their opponents, joining the Hurriyet ve itilaf (Freedom and Entente) Party, where he was employed as editor-in-chief of their newspaper Musavdt. When the Unionists attained power, he fled to Egypt, but soon went to Istanbul, following the truce. There he worked as chief secretary of the Dar el-Hikmet el-islamiye (The House of Islamic Wisdom, an academy for the study of contemporary Islamic issues). When Izmir was occupied by the Greeks, he fled once more to Egypt.92
An article in the first issue of Musdvdt, entitled “Musdvdt and Its Program,” gives the following information concerning the newspaper:
Musdvdt appeared for the first time in Izmir toward the end of 1911 with the mission of crushing the opposition, whose strength had doubled with the War of Tripoli, to stand up to the CUP, and to work for the establishment and spread of the freedom and equality promised all citizens by the Constitution. Musdvdt appeared for the second time in Cairo in 1918,93 its mission being to save the state through a unilateral peace and with the least possible damage from this ill-fated war that we had lost completely and whose German and Bulgarian fronts had collapsed amidst a further rejection of requests for peace, and to work for a return to our traditional policy of hostility to Bolshevik Russia by shifting to the side of England, France, and Italy. The copies of this newspaper preserved in the public library are visible proof of what I say. The third series of Musdvdt also appeared in Cairo, that city of enlightenment that has so far outstripped us and progressed beyond us in science, industry, and civilization. The mission of the third series was the liberation of the homeland from the conditions that preceded the World War, and which today have become yet worse and more shameful.
This is followed by a statement that merits special attention: "at the same time the publishing policy of the paper must be built on mutual Islamic-British benefit, for if we can bring about harmony between the interests of the Muslims and Great Britain, the benefits will accrue to both parties.” Musdvdt, with its stand against the Istanbul government, criticized republican rule for not applying the democracy that it had claimed to represent and for largely ignoring life’s moral dimensions.94 The paper claimed that the state had robbed the nation of its religion and wished to Bolshevize it. It also vehemently opposed the use of Latin characters for writing Turkish and the radical changes introduced into the latter. It rehearsed these ideas repeatedly, especially in the articles signed by izmirli Hafiz ismail.
We find in the newspaper, for example, a statement to the effect that "the numerous letters that we have received from Cairo, Alexandria, Syria, and
Amman bring readers ’ congratulations on the appearance of Musavdt and their requests that it be issued at least weekly,” while elsewhere reference is made to “subscribers in Baghdad, Romania, and Bulgaria,” which indicates that it was also reaching these countries. The articles published in the newspaper bear the signatures of Hafiz Ismail, Ibrahim §akir Kibrisli, Mustafa Kazim Sabri, M. izzet, Cemal Nuzhet, Rasid, Osman Ruhi, Selahaddin Ali, Ali Abdurrez-zak, Magmum Sururi, Shaykh Hamid Kurdistani, Mucahid, and Manavoglu.
We also find in Musdvdt, which was banned in Turkey,95 news items copied from various newspapers published in Europe—namely England, Bulgaria, Egypt, and Italy—and in Turkey, such as Milliyet (Nationhood), Son saat (Stop Press), Vahdet (Unity), Hakimiyet-i milliye (National Sovereignty), and Cumhuriyet (The Republic).
Starting with its second issue, Musdvdt published a poetry series depicting the recent upheaval in Turkey96 and entitled “Son Mustafa” (Mustafa the Last), the installments continuing until Issue 19. Musdvdt had debates and discussions with Muhddenet, which supported the republic and was also issued in Egypt, as well as with Yarin, an opposition newspaper like itself, published in Xanthi (iskege) by the former Ottoman Shaykh al-Islam Mustafa Sabri Effendi, in Greece. These debates and discussions were echoed in the columns of Musdvdt.
The last examined issue of Musdvdt (which, during this third series in Egypt, was illustrated) is Issue 66 and bears the date January 1930. Unfortunately, we have been unable to obtain any information on whether it continued beyond this date.
The second newspaper of importance during this stage was Muhddenet (Friendship), which made its first appearance in the same year as Musdvdt. Muhddenet was a political and economic newspaper published in Cairo during the period 1927 to 1938 and owned by Huseyin Remzi Bey; it tended to support the republic. Its political line is revealed in slogans to this effect, such as “A Republican Turkish Newspaper,” “God Bless Him Who Says, I Am a Turk!,” and “Defending Every Turk Who Draws Breath outside the Homeland and Striving for All That is Good for the Nation and the Regime.” In Issue 52 of 3 February 1928, it clearly describes its goal as follows:
A resolute decision was made to publish a newspaper for the Turkish community in this sister nation in which slanders have multiplied, against both popular revolutions everywhere and the blessed and fortunate revolution in Turkey, and to explain and clarify the true face of Turkey’s revolution.
Thus it was that the decision to publish Muhadenet was made. Indeed, both those who manifested their anger at articles filled from beginning to end with the ugliest lies appearing in the various newspapers that are hostile to Turkey and the Turks and those who believed that resort to a newspaper in Turkish represented a weakness of resolve immediately changed their attitudes and opinions after the decision was taken to publish this newspaper. The conviction of those who were more just and more devoted to the love of the homeland appeared in their statement that Muhadenet would not be able to continue for more than a few issues, and that if it were better to postpone publication for three weeks, or even at the most for three months, then it would be wiser not to publish at all. But Muhadenet overcame all difficulties and each day took a new step toward progress and received wide distribution through God’s grace, responding the while to everything that was written and said against Turkish nationalism.
Our publishing program for the second year will be inspired by the one we followed in the first, for the manifestations of progress and success that have appeard in the Turkish homeland over the past year
First pages of the newspaper Muhadenet in Turkish and Arabic, published in Cairo, Issue 190, dated 17 December 1930
Prove how right was the publishing approach that we outlined in the first issue and to which we have held. As we put it in the first issue, “The feelings that every decent Turk will experience toward those who hold sacred the revolution that has taken place in Turkey and that is taking blessed steps each day on the path of progress, as toward those who are organizing the blessed elections, can only be feelings of gratitude and veneration.”
Muhadenet published news items about Egypt and was generally released in both Arabic and Turkish. We do, however, notice certain differences in content between the Turkish and the Arabic in the same issue. In preparing the paper, use was made of newspapers published in Egypt, such as al-Siyasa (Politics), al-Balagh (Communication), al-Ahram (The Pyramids), al-Muqattam, and al-Wadi al-Nil (The Valley of the Nile). Newspapers published in Lebanon and Izmir were also used.
It was Muhadenefs stated position that it pursued an important path in strengthening and consolidating the relations between the two sister peoples,97 and that it provided the most accurate news relevant to Egyptians.98 It also affirmed that it would strive to uncover the truth alone and would never hesitate to applaud whatever was best in the Turkish revolution and the Turkish Republic or to criticize what it saw as errors.99
Articles by numerous Turkish and Egyptian writers appeared in the pages of Muhadenet, among them Ferid Vecdi Bey, Feridun izzet, Rauf Yekta Bey, M. H. Fazil, the advocate Fikri Abaza, Sadri Etem, Refik Ahmed, Mehmed Fuad Kose Mihalzade, Kose Raifpa§azade Fuad, Tahsin Uzer, ismet Pasha, H. Tahsin, M. A. Hamza, Ahmed Halim, H. T. Tung, F. Sarruf, ‘Abd al-Wahhab ‘Azzam Bey, ismail §ukru, Remzi, F. R., Cenab §ehabeddin, Midhat Galanci, A. S., M. Cengiz Han, and Yekta Ragip.
Muhadenet had subscribers in Turkey, unlike Musavat, which was banned there on several occasions because of its writings in support of the opposition. Subscription revenue collected by Muhadenet in Turkey was sent by the newspaper to charitable associations. A news item in Musavat, however, reveals a different position on the part of the young Turkish republic toward the paper which supported it. The item, in Issue 45 of Musavat, dated 3 January 1929, states: “We have learned from our private sources that our sister newspaper Muhadenet, which still appears in Arabic characters, thus contravening the Latin-character laws, will not be allowed to enter Turkey from today.” Soon after this, Turkish issues of
Muhddenet began to appear in Latin characters and, starting from the issue dated 20 May 1936, the name of the newspaper was changed to Turkiya al-jadida (The New Turkey). The Turkish section was discontinued for a period and the newspaper continued to be published in Arabic. Issues 795 to 800 appear once more in both Turkish and Arabic. At this point, the Turkish section was designated by the name Muhddenet while the Arabic section was given the name Turkiya al-jadida.
Muhddenet published political and social news related to Egypt. The last page, however, contained a column entitled “Turkiye haberleri” (News from Turkey). Every one of its issues confirms the importance of advertising, since the newspaper believed in the principles, “Don’t rely on the quality of the product alone—advertise it too,” and “The success of a work is a function of how well it is advertised.” Frequently we find at the bottom of the page sentences and statements of the type, “Raise the peasant and the country’s happiness will rise too,” or “Pay your taxes on time, for to do so is to love the homeland.” These are accompanied by expressions and statements such as, “Want to preserve your health? Drink Ta§delen Water!” and tributes to Turkey and Egypt, such as, “All Turks must become familiar with sister nation Egypt,” “Egypt is Turkey’s natural and beneficial destination,” “Istanbul is the most beautiful city for the summer,” and “The sweetest water and purest air are to be found in Istanbul.”
Because these two newspapers were contemporaries, each took a stand that contradicted the other’s, and debate and discussion grew heated, with Musdvdt claiming, in a fashion sometimes approaching the insulting, that Turkey was guilty of errors and failings, while Muhddenet claimed that it had never been so rash as to print an article critical of the government of Turkey, as all the decisions the latter made and actions it took were correct.100
World History
