Astronomy The ancient Egyptian science of the stars was prompted in the early eras by the demands of agriculture. Because the harvest seasons and the fertilization of the fields and orchards depended upon the annual inundation of the Nile, the priests of the formative years of Egypt’s history began to chart the heavenly bodies and to incorporate them into a religious tradition that would provide information about the Nile and its patterns of inundation.
There was a fascination with celestial activities, as evidenced by tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.) and the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 B. C.E.), which continued into later eras and was elaborated in the Ptolemaic time. These inscriptions contained lists of the divisions of the sky, called dekans by the Greeks. The dekans were the so-called 12 hours of the night, represented by pictures. Each dekan was personified and given a divine attribute. NUT, an important sky goddess of Egypt, was associated with the inscriptions and their depictions. As the goddess of the heavens, the celestial bodies were incorporated into her body
Certain priests, designated as the “Keepers of Time,” watched the nightly movement of the stars. They were required to memorize the order of the fixed stars, the movements of the moon and the planets, the rising of the moon and the sun, as well as their setting times, and the orbits of the various celestial bodies. Such learned individuals were then ready to recite this information in counsel and to provide details about the changes taking place in the sky in any given season.
One set of stars known to the temple astronomers was called the Ikhemu-Seku, the “Stars That Never Fail.” These were the polar stars that remained fixed in the night sky and were much venerated as special souls having attained true bliss. The second set of stars, actually planets, were the Ikhemu-Weredu, the “Never Resting Stars,” which followed distinct orbits in the night sky. There is no information as to whether the Egyptians made a true distinction between the planets or the stars. Both sets of “stars” were believed to accompany the SOLAR BOAT on its nightly voyage.
The stars noted were Sirius the Dogstar, called SOPDU or Sopdet, considered the true symbol of the coming inundation of the Nile, signaling the rising of the river; Orion, called Sah, the “Fleet-Footed, Long-Strider”; Ursa Major (Great Bear or Big Dipper), called Meskhetiu. Also noted were Cygnus, Cassiopeia, the Dragon, Scorpio, and the Ram. There is no evidence that the Egyptians charted the Pleiades until the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 B. C.E.).
The planets noted were Hor-tash-tawy (Jupiter), called “Horus Who Binds the Two Lands”; Hor-ka-Pet (Saturn), called “Horus the Bull of Heaven”; Horus-Desher (Mars), the “Red Horus”; Sebeg (Mercury), meaning unknown; Seba-Djai (Venus), the “Star that Crosses.” The sun was preeminent in Egyptian religion from predynastic times, represented as the scarab beetle, Khepri, rising in the morning, re’ at noon (overhead), and atum at night. The sun became important to Egyptian astronomy in the Twenty-sixth Dynasty The Egyptians had no special interest in the stars and planets in themselves. It was enough for them to recognize the astral bodies as part of the cosmic harmony that had to be maintained by mankind so that the world could prosper and survive.
Aswan This was the most southern city of ancient Egypt, located at the first cataract of the Nile. Called “the Southern Gate,” or swenet, which is translated as “conducting business,” Aswan became Syrene in the Greek eras. The city also served as a provincial headquarters for the territories below the cataract, as viceroys of nubia (modern Sudan) used the elephantine Island at Aswan as a residence in some reigns. The area is famous for red granite, called syrenite.
Settlements at Aswan date to predynastic times, before the unification c. 3000 b. c.e. The tombs at Aswan include Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b. c.e.) sites. Of particular note are the tombs of Mekhu and sabni. Mekhu died south of Aswan, and his son, Sabni, recovered the body and brought it to Egypt for burial. pepi ii (r. 2246-2152 B. C.E.) gave mortuary gifts for the tomb, which contains rock pillared chambers and frescoes. harkhuf, the faithful servant of Pepi ii, is also buried there. The Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.) tombs of local nomarchs are also in the Aswan necropolis, most designated with long passages and ornamented with frescoes and reliefs.
The temple of khnum at Aswan and satet’s temple demonstrate the ongoing concern of Egypt’s rulers for the city The goddess Satet’s temple was erected by hatshep-SUT (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.), who had reliefs and a granite niche installed. The temple of Khnum has additions made by ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) and nec-TANEBO II (r. 360-343 b. c.e.). philae’s temple, which was moved to the island of Agilkia to save it from the inundation caused by the High Aswan Dam, was supervised from the city. in cultic terms, Aswan was the abode of the deities Khnum, Satet, and anukis. The Nile god, hapi (1), resided in a cave in the region, and one site was reserved as the grave of OSIRIS.
Suggested Readings: Kamil, Jill, and Michael Stock, photographer. Aswan and Abu Simbel: History and Guide. New
York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Siliotti, Albert. Aswan. American University in Cairo Press, 2001.
Aswan Nilometer A station in the temple of the goddess SATET on the elephantine Island that served as an observation point for the rise and fall of the Nile each year, the nilometer was actually a tubular structure with 90 steps, steeply graded and marked to allow the measurement of the river’s inundation each year.
Atbara (Astaboras) This is a tributary of the Nile River that enters the Nile at the fifth cataract, in nubia (in modern Sudan), bringing vast quantities of alluvium and red mud to the Nile Valley The Greeks called the tributary the Astaboras.
Aten A deity introduced into Egypt during the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.), Aten was also known as “Aten of the Day,” the solar disk that shone upon the river, possibly a form of Re-Harakhte. akhenaten (r. 1353-1335 B. C.E.), upon ascending the throne in thebes, proclaimed a great religious reformation and decreed worship of Aten as the only true religion of the land. Aten was not an invention of Akhenaten, having been known in the reigns of his predecessors tuthmosis iv and
AMENHOTEP III.
He established a new capital in honor of the god, a site called Akhetaten, “the Horizon of Aten,” now known as el-’AMARNA, north of Thebes. Vast temple complexes arose on the shore of the Nile, but there were no statues of the god. This deity was represented by a great red disk, from which long rays, complete with hands, extended to the faithful. Akhenaten and his queen, nefertiti, accompanied by their daughters, conducted cultic ceremonies of the god. Until the last years of his reign, Akhenaten was the only priest of the cult.
Ceremonies to Aten consisted mainly of the offering of cakes and fruit and the recitation of lovely hymns composed in his honor. Aten was lauded as the creator of man and the nurturing spirit of the world. He was a solar god, possibly a form of re. A distinct strain of brotherhood and equality of all races and peoples was expressed in the hymns. Aten’s worship was a modified form of monotheism, and as long as Akhenaten was alive the deity was the official god of Egypt. Akhenaten associated himself to Aten, however, sharing feasts as a being united to Aten. Stern measures were taken against the temple of amun in particular and against the veneration of most other deities as well. Even the cartouche of Akhenaten’s father, Amenhotep III, was damaged because the name of the god Amun was part of it. When Akhenaten died in 1335 b. c.e., ’Amarna fell victim to the many enemies of the new deity and Aten was banished forever.
Atet (Itet) (fl. 26th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Fourth Dynasty
She was a wife of Prince Neferma’at, son of snefru (2575-2551 b. c.e.) and Princess neferkau. She was possibly related to Neferma’at by birth. Their son, hemiunu, was vizier for khufu (Cheops, r. 2551-2528 b. c.e.). She was buried with Prince Neferma’at in meidum. The famous beautiful reliefs depicting geese were discovered in Atet’s tomb. Other paintings portrayed pets, sacred birds, and children. in some lists she is called itet.
Athenaeus (fl. fourth century b. c.e.) General in the army of Antigonus I Monophthalmus who opposed Egypt He was a rival of ptolemy i soter (304-284 b. c.e.) and competed with him for domination after the death of ALEXANDER III THE GREAT. In 312 B. C.E., Athenaeus led 4,600 men into the region of the Nabataeans to impose an economic blockade against Egypt and to halt their flow of bitumen, used in mummification. Athenaeus raided Nabataea during a festival in which the men gathered at a place called “the Rock,” believed to be Petra. He captured or killed many attending the festival and made off with hundreds of camels, silver, frankincense, and myrrh. The Greeks, however, were attacked by the Nabataeans soon after, and Athenaeus lost his infantry and several cavalry units. When the Nabataeans wrote antigonus I monophthalmus to protest the Greek invasion, he declared that General Athenaeus had acted on his own.
Athribis (Sohag, Tell Atrib) A site in the western Delta, northeast of benha on the Damietta branch of the Nile, now Tell Atrib, the Egyptians called the city Hut-hery-ib, the cult center of Kem-wer, “the Great Black One,” a bull deity Khenti-kheti, or Horus-Khentikheti, was worshiped at Athribis. The city was probably founded in the Fourth Dynasty (2575-2465 b. c.e.) and maintained by later royal lines. Monuments from the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 b. c.e.) are at Athribis, as well as a temple erected by amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.) and another by amasis (r. 570-526 b. c.e.). The tomb of Queen takhat (3), consort of psammetichus ii (r. 595-589 b. c.e.), was also discovered at the site. One of the city’s priests, amenhotep, son of hapu, achieved lasting fame in Egypt.
Athribis Stela A monument erected in the reign of merenptah (1224-1214 b. c.e.), the son and heir of RAMESSES II, this stela, along with the Cairo Column and an inscription discovered in karnak, recounts the military challenges facing Merenptah when he took the throne of Egypt. The Libyans and their allies, who hoped to invade Egypt, were defeated by Merenptah at Per-yer in the Delta.
Atika This was a region in the sinai Peninsula, possibly a people as well, mentioned in the Great HARRIS papyrus. The copper mines in the area were exploited by Egyptians, and in the reign of ramesses iii (1194-1163 b. c.e.) bars of copper in “the tens of thousands” were loaded onto a royal galley for delivery to Egypt.
See also Egyptian natural resources.
Atum (Tem, Tum) one of the earliest deities in Egypt, an earth god also called Tem and Tum, Atum existed alone in the beginning of time, floating inert in the watery chaos of nun or Nu. A self-generating deity, capable also of self-impregnation, his name meant “completed One.” Atum rose alone on the site of his temple at HELIOPOLIS.
A Twentieth Dynasty (1196-1070 b. c.e.) papyrus that was copied in the Ptolemaic Period (332-30 b. c.e.) states that Atum evolved alone, coming out of the chaos of Nun. He sired the deities SHU and tefnut. They created GEB and nut, who begat OSIRIS, ISIS, set, and neph-THYS. These gods formed the ennead of Heliopolis, joined by horus or re. For this reason Atum was called “the plural of the plural.”
During the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.), Atum was associated with the cult of Re, worshiped as Atum-Re. He was depicted as a man wearing the double crown of Egypt and carrying a royal scepter and the ANKH. Atum was a form of the god Re as the setting sun, and he also appeared as a mongoose. The creator of all of the Nile deities, Atum was later associated with cults of ptah and then Osiris.
Augustus (Octavian) (d. 14 c. e.) First emperor of the Roman Empire and the first to rule over Egypt He held Egypt as a special province from 30 b. c.e. until his death. He was born Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in 63 B. C.E. and was the great nephew and adopted son and heir of Julius caesar. When Caesar was assassinated in 44 B. C.E., Octavian, as he was called then, allied himself with Marc antony and Lepidus in the ensuing civil war against his uncle’s murderers, Brutus, cassius, and the so-called Liberators.
The political alliance between Octavian and Antony collapsed in 31 b. c.e., and Octavian, aided by Marcus AGRIPPA and others, set out to destroy Marc Antony and CLEOPATRA VII (51-30 B. C.E.). Winning the battle of ACTIUM, Octavian occupied Alexandria and watched the suicides of Egypt’s last queen-pharaoh, Cleopatra VII, and Marc Antony He refused to honor the apis bull in SAQQARA and the mummies of ancient pharaohs. Reportedly he did touch the body of Alexander iii the great, causing a piece of the preserved nose to fall off the body. Augustus did tour the Nile Valley, and he started programs of repair on the irrigation system, using Roman troops to make the necessary changes.
A silver denarius struck to celebrate the victory of Octavian (Augustus) and his conquest of Egypt in 30 b. c.e. (Courtesy Historical Coins, Inc.)
Augustus made Egypt an imperial estate of Rome and set out to rule the largest empire in that historical period. He brought peace and prosperity to Rome and maintained the provinces securely The Altar of Peace, erected in 13 B. C.E. in Rome’s Campus Martius, and the Monument Ancyranum, erected in Ankara (modern Turkey), provide evidence of his robust vision and his careful rebuilding and administration of the empire. Octavian, as Augustus, died in Rome in 14 C. E.
Augustus’s annexation of Egypt was a necessary move, and he handled the Roman occupation of the Nile Valley with tact and with an awareness of the land’s history and potential prosperity Giving Egypt the status of an imperial estate, a personal possession of the reigning emperor, he applied a prefect to govern in his name. This prefecture was open only to members of the Equestrian Knighthood. He also decreed that no Roman of the Senatorial or Equestrian classes could enter Egypt without the emperor’s personal permission. The Egyptians reconciled themselves to the political changes and turned inward again, forming stable NOMES and leaders that endured the Roman presence, the taxes, and the obligations.
Auibre (fl. 26th century b. c.e.) Prince of the Fourth Dynasty
He was the son of Prince djedefhor (c. 2530 b. c.e.). The Instructions of Djedefhor was addressed to him. Auibre was the grandson of khufu (Cheops). Prince Auibre was counseled to marry and to raise up “stout sons” for Egypt.
Ausim (Hem, Letopolis) A site north of modern Cairo in Egypt’s Delta territory, called Hem by the Egyptians and Letopolis by the Greeks. The site was a cult center for the falcon deity, horus, in the forms of Khenty-
Khem or Khenty-Irty. Monuments honoring Horus were erected at Ausim by necho ii (r. 610-596 b. c.e.), psam-METICHUS II (r. 595-589 b. c.e.), hakoris (r. 393-380 B. C.E.), and NECTANEBO I (r. 380-362 b. c.e.).
Aut This was the ancient Egyptian name for the funerary offerings for the deceased, when such offerings could be afforded by the family, or contracted before death. The priesthood maintained special groups of trained officials who offered goods to the deceased as part of mortuary
RITUALS.
Auta The ancient Egyptian name for the cobra, the goddess WADJET, in a striking position with a full hood displayed, this symbol was represented on the crowns of the kings in the form of the uraeus.
Avaris (Hut-Waret) A site located in the eastern Delta, northeast of bubastis, in the region of Khatana and Qantir, the site of the per-ramesses, the residence of the Nineteenth Dynasty (1307-1196 b. c.e.) rulers. Avaris dates to ancient times and was considered a shrine city of the god OSIRIS; a piece of the god’s body was supposed to be buried there as a holy relic. The city was called Hut-Waret by the Egyptians. Avaris became the capital of the HYKSOS, the Asiatics, who dominated northern territories during the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1532 B. C.E.) and was probably founded c. 1720-1700 b. c.e. They used distinctly Canaanite architecture and displayed alien cultural symbols.
The Hyksos provided the city with walls, causeways, and various defenses to protect the inhabitants against sieges and missile attacks. KAMOSE tried to reach Avaris with his southern army in c. 1500 b. c.e. in order to expel the Hyksos, but the task fell to his brother, ’AHMOSE (r. 1550-1525 B. C.E.), founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty. He used both land and sea forces to assault the capital. Avaris endured the siege, and the withdrawal of the Hyksos appears to have been the result of negotiations, although the Egyptian army pursued them even beyond the border. The surrender of Avaris in 1532 b. c.e. ended the Hyksos domination and the division of Egypt.
In the Ramessid Period the site would become a spectacular metropolis again. Avaris appears to have been the home of the first ramesses (r. 1307-1306 b. c.e.), and his successors transformed the city into a vast complex of temples, palaces, shrines, and military encampments.
Awet The ancient crook and flail, the royal symbol of the pharaohs, adopted from the god OSIRIS and the ancient shepherd deity andjeti. The crook denoted the pharaoh’s role as the guardian of the people of the Nile. The crook and the flail were used in all royal ceremonies and were part of the mortuary regalia of all rulers.
Aziru 6i
Awibre Her (fl. 19th century b. c.e.) Mysterious royal personage of Egypt in the Twelfth Dynasty He was possibly the son and heir, perhaps even coregent, of AMENEMHET III (r. 1844-1797 b. c.e.). No records of his coregency survive, but his tomb, located in the funerary complex of Amenemhet III at dashur, contained royal insignias. A rare wooden statue of this young man was discovered there, as well as a gilded mask and a sarcophagus, made out of a single square of sandstone. The tomb of a princess, nwebhotep-khred, is located beside that of Awibre Hor. She was possibly his consort, as she was buried wearing a silver crown and a golden uraeus, the symbol of the rulers of Egypt. The wooden statues of Hor depict him as a ka, an astral being that rises at death. He possibly served as coregent for only seven months.
Axe ef Ah’hetep A New Kingdom military emblem discovered in the tomb of Queen ah’hotep (1), the mother of ’ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b. c.e.). The axe symbolized the emblem of honor in military events. A common form of the axe was used in all parades. The blade of the weapon displays the sphinx, the Nile, and various goddesses and is made of copper, gold, semiprecious stones, and glass paste. This blade was secured to the handle with leather thongs.
Aya (1) (Merneferre) (d. 1690 b. c.e.) Ruler of the Thirteenth Dynasty
He reigned from 1704 b. c.e. until his death. His throne name meant “Beautiful Is The Desire of Re.” This ruler is believed to have been a native of avaris and a vassal of the HYKSOS, the Asiatics who dominated the northern territories at the time. A diorite capstone from his tomb was found in the eastern Delta, and other monuments were found throughout the Nile valley. His tomb, however, is unidentified. The eastern Delta rebelled at the end of Aya’s reign.
Aya (2) (Kheperkheprure) (d. 1319 b. c.e.) Ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He reigned from 1323 b. c.e. until his death. Aya ascended the throne upon the death of tut’ankhamun and apparently married ankhesenamon, the boy king’s widow She does not appear after the initial succession of Aya, however. The queen who is shown in all surviving texts is TEY, a commoner who had served as a nurse to NEFERTITI and had married Aya before his accession to the throne.
Aya, also a commoner, had been the “Master of the Horse” and Fan Bearer and then vizier and chancellor for AKHENATEN (r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.) at ’amarna, but he followed the process of reorganizing the government and the aggrandizement of the god amun during his brief reign. His portraits depict a man with a narrow, bony face and a long, slender nose. Aya erected karnak’s colonnade and a rock-cut shrine at akhmin. He built a mortuary temple at medinet habu in western Thebes but did not provide himself with a tomb there. In the valley of the KINGS a tomb was decorated for him and for Tey, but his remains have never been found. His tomb is long and straight in design, with four corridors. An elaborate passage leads to a burial chamber, which was decorated with the text of the AM DUAT. Aya’s burial site included a red granite sarcophagus. He also had an unfinished tomb in ’Amarna. Aya designated nakhtmin (1), possibly a relative and a military commander, as his heir, but horemhab put him aside and became the last pharaoh of the dynasty.
Aziru (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Ruler of Amurru, successor of Abdiashirta
He had political dealings with akhenaten (r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.) and tut’ankhamun (r. 1333-1323 b. c.e.). Aziru maintained an alliance with the hittites and began seizing the prosperous port cities on the Mediterranean coast, claiming that his actions were based on Egyptian needs. In time, however, Aziru lost the support of Egypt and became a vassal of suppiluliumas i and the Hittites.
See also paware.
World History
