Epilog

Some of the late republican veterans appear on inscriptions, such as Marcus Billienus, who had fought at Actium, and whose funerary inscription informs us that he had been settled in Ateste, where he later became a member of the town council. The example of Marcus Billienus shows that many veterans became well-to-do members of the local elite. We may be sure that in the early years of Augustus’ reign, during which he gradually shaped the principate, people like Marcus Billienus were contented citizens and loyal supporters of the new order.27

The army of Augustus became an important pillar and source of stability for the emerging principate. However, we should not forget that Augustus’ army was shaped by the experiences during the disastrous decades of civil war between Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 and the battle of Actium in 31. The armies of the Republic had been raised for each particular conflict and been disbanded afterward. This had resulted in occasional mass levies. The discharge of such troops constituted one of the main problems of the late Republic. Therefore, Augustus reshaped the legions and the auxiliary forces into permanent units. Concomitantly, he reorganized the recruitment of soldiers for the army. From now on, soldiers were to serve for the largest part of their adult life, but they could count on a bonus upon discharge - either a piece of land or a substantial sum of money - to support them after their retirement. However, recruits came less and less from Italy itself. In the long run, civil society and the Roman army became disconnected entities in Italy and the Mediterranean heart of the Empire.