Father of the church, writer, philosopher, and key figure in the development of Christianity Born in the Algerian town of Thagaste, son of a landowner and a devoutly Christian mother, Saint Monica, Augustine was educated at Carthage. He eventually taught and came to the attention of the pagan philosopher SYMMACHUS. Educationally, he aspired to be a man of letters, terminating a marriage and abandoning a son for more ambitious associations. When he was 18, he followed his intellectual curiosities and read Cicero’s Hort-ensius (now lost). He tried to follow the Manichaeist sect, which promised wisdom in a Gnostic fashion, but it proved ultimately unsatisfactory. As a teacher in 384, he traveled to Rome but finally settled in Milan where he began a long relationship and friendship with the local bishop, the formidable Ambrose. Two years later Ambrose introduced him to the wide circle of Christian Neopla-tonists of the city
Augustine found a spiritual home. Although he still lacked the capacity to differentiate Christian theology and Neoplatonic thought, in August of 386 he was baptized by Ambrose. As he wrote in his Confessions, it was through Neoplatonism that he came to a full appreciation of Christianity Returning to Thagaste, Augustine attempted to live as a recluse. His reputation among the Christian intellectuals, however, brought about his forced ordination into the priesthood of Hippo in 391. The elderly bishop of that diocese needed an assistant. In 395 Augustine was named as his successor to the see.
Just as Augustine’s life was altered by the Hortensius, so was the church changed by the new bishop. Writing and continuing his scholarship, he spearheaded the spread of Christianity in Africa, in the face of paganism and numerous heretical sects. The Manichaeans fell before him; the Donatists were condemned at Carthage in 411; he reproached Pelagianism in 412.
Augustine was a prolific writer. His Confessions, an autobiographical account of his youth that recounted everything until the death of his mother in 387, was a demonstration of his intense curiosity and quest for knowledge. De Doctrina Christiana (397) examined scholarship and the manner in which it was to be pursued from the perspective of Christianity and the Scriptures. Philosophy and thought were to be studied only to achieve a greater understanding of the Gospels and the meaning of God’s Will. His greatest work, The City of God (413-426) defended the Christianization of Rome, refuting paganism’s ancient claim to the city The City of God extended its concerns to the next world, where the elect and the doomed would be separated. Augustine is ranked with Ambrose, Gregory I, and Jerome as one of the Four Fathers of the church.
Augustodonum Capital of the Gallic tribe, the Aedui. Augustodonum was built by the Aedui following their defeat by Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars, circa 56 b. c.e. The previous capital was the stronghold of Bibracte but with Caesar’s victory it was abandoned, and Augusto-donum was built in its place. It was also called Autun. In 21 C. E., the Gallic rebel, Sacrovir, used the city as his headquarters for his unsuccessful rebellion against Rome. Augustodonum was located in the Aedui territory near the Loire River.
Augustus (Gaius Octavian) (63 b. c.e.-14 c. e.) First emperor of Rome and founder of the Roman imperial state
I found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble.
Augustus
Gaius Octavian was born on September 23, 63 b. c.e., to C. octavius and Atia, a niece of Julius Caesar by his sister Julia. The family of Octavian was a good one, but its alliance to the Julians was far more important, and Octa-vian came under their direct influence when his father died in 59 b. c.e. Atia raised him and ensured his education by grammarians and philosophers, but it was Caesar who would have the most impact upon Octavian, and who presented him with the greatest opportunities.
In 53 B. C.E., at the age of 12, Octavian delivered the funeral oration (the laudatio) for his grandmother Julia, and several years later served in a priesthood. Caesar came to dominate his life’s direction. He saw his uncle’s triumph in Rome in 46 b. c.e. and in 45 journeyed to Spain to be with him on campaign.
Octavian was never strong physically, suffering from a variety of complaints that plagued him throughout his life. The trip to Spain was arduous, along dangerous roads. He also suffered a shipwreck and was in a sorry state when he arrived at Caesar’s camp. But his uncle recognized something unique in him, rewarding his efforts with military training.
After a time Octavian was sent to Apollonia, in Epirus, to study philosophy and the arts of war. He took with him his two dearest friends, Marcus Agrippa and Marcus Rufus. His studies were cut short by the assassination of Caesar in Rome.
Octavian was only 18 years old, but the will of his uncle declared him his chief heir and adopted son. His position in Rome was now radically different and bound by the obligation to avenge Caesar’s death. Octavian traveled to Rome and found that cautious deliberation would be far more useful than rash action, a characteristic that would mark his later years.
Marc ANTONY was in Rome, and Octavian found him unwilling to relinquish control of Julius Caesar’s property or assets. Octavian immediately began a defensive action against Antony. Cicero, Antony’s bitter foe, was befriended, and Octavian presented the ludi Victoriae Caesaris, the Victory Games of Caesar, to the people. The Senate, anxious to snub the ambitious Antony and his claims, made Octavian a senator and asked his aid in the wars that had begun as a result of the assassination.
Octavian defeated Antony’s legions at Mutina in April of 43 B. C.E. As a result, Octavian’s troops demanded that he be given the rank and the powers of a consul. Reluctantly the Senate agreed, and, as Caesar’s adopted heir, he took the name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus.
Realizing that he had to reach a truce with Antony to achieve wider aims, Octavian formed a second triumvirate with him and Marcus Lepidus on November 27, 43 B. C.E. Octavian thus ruled Africa, Sicily, and Sardinia. He also benefited from the fact that Caesar had been elevated to the status of a god. Antony was joined to him as well, in the common ambition of defeating Brutus, Cassius, and the party of the liberators, a task accomplished at the battle of Philippi in 42 B. C.E. Octavian was not present, however, being too ill.
Antony was given control of the East as a result, while Octavian worked to strengthen his hold on italy, sensing that Rome was where the ultimate power rested. Officially he still held Africa, but in italy he fought with Antony’s brother Lucius and Fulvia in 41 B. C.E., in the
A silver denarius of Augustus, struck before he was granted the title of Augustus in 27 B. C.E. The coin was struck to commemorate Augustus's formal possession of Egypt a year after Actium in 30 B. C.E. (Courtesy Historical Coins, Inc.)
PERUSINE WAR, and then began gaining the good will of the legions by distributing land to the veterans of campaigns.
Political maneuvering next involved him in a marriage with Scribonia, a relative of Sextus Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great, but he divorced her and married the formidable Livia Drusilla, who remained with him until his death. Antony still troubled him, and a certain relaxation of tension was accomplished by the treaty of Brundisium in 40 B. C.E.
The triumvirate was maintained and extended by the treaty of Tarentum in 37 B. C.E.: Octavian ruled the West, Antony the East, and Lepidus took Africa. Marc Antony married Octavia, Octavian’s sister, but found life in the East too compelling, falling in love with Cleopatra Vii of Egypt and thus dooming the marriage. Octavian could not take action against his brother-in-law as Sextus Pom-pey, a pirate with a vast fleet and a reputation for cruelty, still plagued Rome. Marcus Agrippa, however, waged a brilliant campaign against Sextus Pompey, and in 36 B. C.E. Sextus was defeated at the battle of Naulochus.
Lepidus then attempted to revolt against his fellow triumvirs, but his legions were taken away from him by Octavian, who sent him into exile at Circeii. This left only Octavian and Antony, dividing the Roman world between them. Octavian took the title of Imperator as he waged campaigns in Illyricum and Dalmatia (35-33 B. C.E.), after which he proclaimed to the Romans that their frontiers were safe. With that proclamation came a beautification program for the city, under the direction of Agrippa. His popularity thus ensured, Octavian was prepared to meet Antony for the final confrontation.
In October of 32 B. C.E., the western provinces swore their allegiance to Octavian. War was inevitable, and on September 2, 31, the battle of actium was fought off the west coast of Greece, with Octavian facing Antony and Cleopatra. Through Agrippa’s brilliant leadership, Octa-vian won the day and gained mastery over the Roman world. He conquered Egypt in 30 and generally pacified the East along the lines begun by Antony.
As the “foremost citizen” of the Republic, Octavian exercised power beyond that of his predecessors. unlike his uncle, Julius Caesar, he had no intention of declaring himself the master of the people, the ruler of the state— the dictator. Octavian recognized that by maintaining the Republican institutions and ensuring the prosperity of all Roman traditions, he could help Rome achieve its destined greatness.
He served as consul from 31 to 23 B. C.E. In 30 he was granted tribunician power, and in 29 began his reforms of the army The plunder of Egypt was used to pay off his troops, and many veterans were given lands to farm and colonize. The legions were thus reduced, but Roman influence in the provinces was ensured.
Soon the once ponderous 60 legions were reduced to 28, although they were supplemented by large formations
Of auxiliaries. None of these legions were allowed in Italy, and for his own protection Octavian created something new—the praetorian guard. Later a treasury department, the aerarium militare, was created for better organization of military finances.
Octavian then turned to the Senate and in 28 B. C.E., armed with the title of PRINCEPS SENATUS and with the help of Marcus Agrippa, conducted a census. Through this maneuver the Senate was reduced in number to 800. Certain of his AUCTORITAS, or unquestioned position, Oc-tavian prepared to return his power to the Senate and to the people of Rome, thus gaining for all time their obedience.
The Senate received back its powers to control the state on January 13, 27 b. c.e. In return, Octavian was granted for 10 years control of Spain, Gaul, and Syria, centers of frontier defense, and controlled the appointment of governors. These were thus imperial provinces, and the Senate controlled the rest. This system was seemingly Republican, with the added safeguard that no governor of any province would dare to go against Augustus’s wishes.
On the 16th of January in 27 b. c.e., he received the title Augustus, signifying his semi-divine, or more than human, nature. By 23 b. c.e., although no longer a consul, Augustus received the titles of IMPERIUM MAIUS and TRI-BUNICIA POTESTAS, which gave him control over the provinces, the Senate, and the state. His response was typical; Augustus concentrated on reviving Roman religion. He created great temples to Mars and Apollo and ordered the temple of Capitoline Jupiter. In 12 b. c.e., he succeeded Marcus Lepidus as pontifex maximus, the highest priesthood of Roman religion. The arval BRETHREN were revived, and the ranks of the Vestal Virgins were filled.
He built the Forum and the temples and supported any wealthy citizen who followed his lead. Most notable were the ever-faithful Marcus Agrippa and Marcius Philippus. Organizationally the city was divided into 14 wards under his direction. Police duties were performed by the Urban Cohorts, and order was maintained over the often unruly mobs. Above the Urban Cohorts, however, and above the population, the Senate, and, eventually, the emperors themselves, stood the Praetorian Guards.
Administrative changes were made in finances and bureaucracy. The Equestrian Order and Freedmen were brought into the government, and the civil system was born, a unit that maintained the empire for the next 500 years. The provinces contributed to the tax system, and laws were reformed or created, extending from adultery, treason, and bribery to marriage.
Augustus was concerned with the preservation of the frontiers, their certification, and, where possible, expansion. Spain and Gaul were strengthened and urbanized. Egypt’s borders were organized, and in 20 b. c.e. a formal peace was signed with Parthia in the East. The treaty affirmed Roman dominion over Armenia and pointed to one of Augustus’s focal points of policy: the utilization of existing client countries in the East—Armenia, Com-magene, Cappadocia, Galatia, and even Syria—as buffers toward Parthian expansion. Augustus did not realize all of his ambitions. Germany was occupied, and steps taken toward colonization and pacification, but in 9 C. E., the general Varus was annihilated by Arminius and Germans in the Teutoburg Forest. All hopes of achieving Roman supremacy there were abandoned.
As PATER PATRIAE, Augustus stressed the importance of the Roman family and institutions. In 18 b. c.e., he pushed for the acceptance of the lex Julia de adulteriis, which punished adultery, and the lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus, which required marriage and also the remarriage of the widowed. Only one person, the Lady Antonia, was given dispensation. Augustus honored family life and was always devoted to Livia, but his domestic affairs, and especially his constant search for a successor, dominated and strained his later years.
A successor to Augustus was not necessarily expected as there were no imperial precedents. Although Augustus searched constantly for an heir, Suetonius commented that twice the ruler thought of stepping down (after Antony’s death and when he fell seriously ill, probably in 23 B. C.E.). But finding a suitable successor was not easy, for few men in the Roman world would have been able to maintain Augustus’s equilibrium between the republican traditions and imperial realities. As the years passed, family tragedies and disappointments reduced his options until only one figure remained.
In the early years there was a battle of wills between Marcus Agrippa and Augustus’s nephew, Marcellus (29-23 B. C.E.). Marcellus was the husband of Augustus’s daughter Julia, but he died in 23. As a result, Julia was married to Agrippa. Although not eligible for the throne himself because of his common origin, his children could become emperors. Julia bore Agrippa three sons: Gaius, Lucius, and Agrippa Posthumus. Agrippa and his two sons, Gaius and Lucius, were officially adopted in 17
B. C. E.
Augustus needed administrative help, but his three adopted grandsons were too young. He turned to his wife Livia’s sons by her former husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero: Tiberius and Nero Drusus. Nero Drusus died on the Elbe in 9 b. c.e.; in 6 b. c.e., Tiberius was elevated to imperial assistant, with a share in Augustus’s tri-bunicia potestas. Only one year later, Gaius was given the title of PRINCEPS lUVENTUTis, joined by Lucius in 5 b. c.e., thus marking them as the true heirs. Tiberius moved to Rhodes, where he remained until 4 C. E., when tragic events brought him to Rome again. Lucius had died in 2
C. E., followed by Gaius. And Agrippa Posthumus was exiled.
With the heirs of his choice gone, Augustus faced yet another blow. His daughter Julia had caused a terrible
World History
