Glossary

Amicitia

The Latin term amicitia describes various personal or political aspects of friendship, i. e. it is used in the context of relations between individuals as well as states. Outside Rome amicitia can point to a treaty or to friendly relations between two states that existed without an official foedus. Amici-tia required bilateral consent. In general, the declaration of amicitia was motivated by the desire for a reconciliation of interests.

Breviarium

Breviaria were short histories written in a continuous narrative, in contrast to a ‘chronicle’, which was in general a list-type record of events and dates in chronological order. Breviaria intended to both entertain and teach. They primarily served to provide uneducated new elites with a necessary historical and cultural knowledge. This genre became particularly popular during the fourth century ad.

Catafractarii

This was the mailed cavalry that the Romans faced for the first time in 190 bc when they fought the Seleucid king Antiochus III. The catafractarii contributed significantly to Crassus’ defeat at Carrhae against the Parthians in 53 bc. The impact of this unit was also responsible for the military strength of the Sasanians in the third and fourth centuries ad. The catafractarii were armed with a heavy lance and attacked their enemies’ lines frontally in a single body.

Christological controversies

After Constantine the Great had become a supporter of Christianity deep theological confrontations emerged within the Roman Empire. During the time of bishop Alexander I of Alexandria (312—28) the main dispute was over Arianism. According to Arias, a cleric from Antioch, Christ was not truly divine. In contrast, Alexandrian theologians announced that God the Father and Jesus were of one substance. The controversy escalated, and Constantine the Great, concerned about the unity of the empire, convened the Council of Nicaea (325), which condemned Arius and prescribed the Alexandrian doctrine. The Council of Constantinople (381) confirmed this conclusion and ended the dispute, which was labelled ‘Trinitarian’ according to the three natures of the divine. Shortly after, the controversy flared up again, this time with much greater consequences. It revolved around the nature of Christ, the relationship between the human and the divine in Christ. The patriarch of Constantinople, Nestorius, refused to call the Virgin Mary ‘the bearer of God’ (theotokos) and clearly distinguished between two natures in Christ (so called extreme dyophysitism). In contrast, the patriarch of Alexandria, Cyril I (412—44), proclaimed that Christ was of one nature and that in him god and man had become one (monophysitism). Another Council took place at Ephesus in 431 and condemned Nestorius as a heretic. Under Dioscurus (444—54) the power of the patriarch of Alexandria appeared to be at its zenith. However, new Christological controversies erupted. The archimandrite Eutyches, an adherent of the Alexandrian doctrine at Constantinople, took Cyril’s doctrine a step further and argued that after his incarnation the two natures of Christ became one divine nature. At the so-called Robber Synod of Ephesus (449) Dioscurus was once more able to promote monophysitism successfully. Under the emperor Marcian (450—7), however, a different religious policy began. The Council of Chal-cedon (451) brought about a famous and final decision on the Christological dispute, by way of defining Christ as both god and man, two natures that were inconvertible but also inseparable (so called moderate dyophysitism). This formula repudiated both Nestorianism and monophysitism. All later attempts to integrate the positions failed.

Clibanarii

Very similar to the catafractarii, these mailed cavalry units were additionally protected by a cuirass made of small plates that covered the whole body. They are attested from the third century ad onwards.

Comes

In late antiquity this was the rank of leading officials employed at the imperial court and in the provinces, in both the civil and military administration of the Roman Empire. The comes commerciorum was responsible for the trade in the border provinces, the comes foederatorum for the supervision of the allied non-Roman units, who were mostly commanded by generals appointed from their own tribes and peoples. The comes (sacrarum) largi-tionum, who was a court official, was in charge of the imperial finances; among other things he supervised the collection oftaxes and customs duties, controlled all mints and the yields of the mines and was responsible for the budgets of civil and military service. The titles and exact duties of the individual comites varied considerably in the course of late antiquity.

Constantinian revolution

This is an expression coined by modern scholarship to express the new relationship between the Roman state and Christianity after the reign of Constantine the Great (306—37), when the persecutions of the Christians were finally abandoned. Constantine’s conversion to the Christian faith and the fact that pagan cults were increasingly undermined in state and society certainly entailed tremendous historical consequences. At the end of the fourth century Theodosius the Great declared Christianity as the only orthodox religion in the Roman Empire.

Dux

Aside from the general meaning ‘leader’, in particular the leader of an army or a military unit, from the third century ad onwards the term also described a military rank. When Diocletian reorganised the administration of the Roman Empire he separated civil and military functions. From then on, the dux was in charge of the troops positioned in the border provinces. He was essentially the military official responsible for the protection of the frontiers.

Foedus

Originally, the term foedus described an obligation under oath and therefore pertained to religious law. Later, this formal aspect gave way to the emphasis on a ‘treaty’ or ‘alliance’. Increasingly, the term defined an official treaty between states. By concluding such a formal treaty, a foedus, the armed confrontations between rivalling powers were ended and precise terms of peace established. A foedus aequum was based on the equal status of both empires. In the case of a foedus iniquum one empire had to acknowledge the rule of the other. Prior to the conclusion of a foedus ambassadors had to be exchanged. The terms of the treaty were written down and came into effect only when the two sides had formally signed them.

Imperium maius

This is the power status of a military command that superseded the authority of other officials in their sphere of command.

Incense route

This is the name of one of the most famous caravan routes in antiquity. It commenced in southern Arabia and ran along the western coast of the Arabian peninsula to the commercial centres in north-west Arabia (Petra, Bostra). Via this trade route Arabia’s luxury goods were transported to the Roman East, among other things the much desired frankincense.

Istakhr

The town was a religious centre of the Sasanians in the Persis. During the Sasanian period it was as significant as Persepolis had been during the Achaemenid period. After the Islamic conquest of the Sasanian Empire Istachr was destroyed.

Ius Italicum

By being granted the ius Italicum communities outside Italy gained a privileged legal status. This entailed autonomous administration and independence from the provincial governors, but most importantly fiscal privileges and a special legal treatment of landed property in the area, which probably enjoyed tax exemption as a rule. However, we do not know the precise content and details of this privilege.

Kusan

This was the name of a dynasty of central Asia that flourished particularly during the first centuries bc and ad, when it united parts of central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and India to form an important empire. During the Arsacid period these so-called ‘Indoscythians’ were powerful opponents of the Parthians. At the time of the rise of the Sasanian dynasty the power of the Kusan, who were a possible threat at the north-eastern borders of the Sasanian Empire, was already waning.

Lazi

This culture of Scythian origin inhabited Colchis, a region situated along the south-eastern shore of the Black Sea, bordering Armenia and the Caucasus. The Lazi gained historical significance only in late antiquity, when they took over power from the ancient Colchians. They were a vassal state of Rome and subject to Sasanian influence only between 470 and 522.

Magians (magoi)

According to Herodotus, the magoi were a Median tribe. The Greeks also perceived them as a priestly caste, who were particularly knowledgeable with regard to the interpretation of dreams, as well as astrology and magic, and who served first the Median kings and later the Achaemenid rulers. In the Sasanian period the Magians were the most important religious officials within the Zoroastrian religious community.

Magister

This was the rank of a variety of Roman officials who, especially in late antiquity, could be extremely powerful. The officials were always masters of one particular field of activity. The magister equitum was thus commander of the cavalry, and the magister officiorum presided over the offices, i. e. he was the head of the civil administration of the empire. The magister militum per Orientem was responsible for the troops stationed on the Eastern frontier, which included the recruitment of and jurisdiction over these; in contrast, the magister militum praesentalis commanded the soldiers stationed in the capital and therefore performed his duties in the immediate environment of the emperor.

Mani/Manichaeism

Mani (216—77) was the founder of the Persian religion that was named Manichaeism after him. Already as a child Mani was inspired by visions in which the right faith was communicated to him. He claimed to be the last prophet and saviour of mankind. Although Mani acknowledged that Zarathustra, Buddha and Jesus had preached the truth in earlier times, he wanted to correct the mistakes made by other religions since and to preserve the good aspects of these religions. As it incorporated Iranian, Babylonian, Indian and Christian elements, Manichaeism was a syncretistic religion, a factor that must have contributed to its popularity. It was comparable to the other great world religions in that it offered salvation and answers regarding fundamental questions about the origin of the world, the soul, the body and the character of evil. Mani took care that his doctrines were written down in order that they were not modified by later transmission. Manichaeism was therefore clearly a book religion. During the reign of Sapur I (240—72) Mani was free to travel and preach his religion, which spread quickly throughout the Sasanian Empire. After the death of Sapur, however, the Zoroastrian priests, who did not tolerate any other religion besides their own, urged the new king to imprison Mani. In the following period the Manichaeans were persecuted in the Sasanian Empire and many of them sought refuge in both the West and the East.

Medes

Originally the Medes were an Iranian people of horsemen who migrated to the Iranian mountain regions at the beginning of the first millennium bc and who from the eighth century bc onwards became very significant. In alliance with the Babylonians the Medes overthrew the powerful Assyrian Empire and extended their rule into Asia Minor to the river Halys (590— 585). Around 550 bc the Persian Cyrus revolted against the Median king Astyages. The Persians became the successors of Median rule and were often incorrectly called ‘Medes’ by the Greeks.

Monophysitism

See Christological controversies

Nabataeans

The Nabataeans were a people in northern Arabia who became significant from the fourth century bc onwards. Their confrontations with the rivalling successors of Alexander the Great brought them in contact with the Greek world. Petra, the capital of the Nabataean Empire, was a major centre of the flourishing caravan trade along the Incense Route. The Nabataean Empire reached its greatest extension around 100 bc. From the middle of the first century bc it became dependent on Rome. Upon the instigation of the emperor Trajan in ad 106 it was integrated into the Roman Empire and became the province of Arabia, of which the new capital was Bostra.

Nestorians

See Christological controversies Persis

This was the region in south-eastern Iran that became the political centre of the Achaemenid Empire and a centre of Iranism. After the conquest of Alexander the Great the impact of‘Hellenism’ did not affect this area much so that the ‘Iranian spirit’ could develop further. Important places in the Persis were Persepolis, Pasargadai, Istachr and Naqs-i Rustam.

Phylarchos

The Greek title was used for holders of both magisterial and military offices. In late antiquity the chiefs of Arabian tribes were often called phylarchs. Already Cicero used the term with this specific meaning.

Praetorian prefect

The office was created by Augustus. A praefectus praetorio was appointed from members of the equestrian rank and in charge of the praetorian cohorts, the elite troops of the emperor in Rome. Gradually his military duties were extended to include civil functions, and the number of office holders varied between one and three. Constantine the Great reorganised the office by assigning exclusively civil functions to the praetorian prefect. He became the most important imperial administrator, who commanded the large administrative districts of the empire, the praefecturae (Gallia, Italia, Illyricum, Oriens), which were in turn divided into dioceses. In late antiquity the praetorian prefect was one of the highest officials in the Roman Empire.

Saracens/Sarakenoi

Authors of the first three centuries ad use the name Sarakenoi for a nomadic Arab tribe from the Sinai desert, which was in close contact with the Roman governor of the province of Arabia. In late antiquity and during the Middle Ages Christian authors in particular used the term for all Arabs, later for the Muslims, to some extent for all non-Christians.

Satrap

This is the title of Achaemenid, later also Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian provincial governors. Within their satrapies, the geographical regions assigned to the satraps, they were responsible for the collection of tribute; in times of war they were the military commanders of the troops within their sphere of influence. They also held diplomatic as well as judicial powers. Because of the concentration of power within the hands of individual satraps the central power of the Great king was frequently challenged by individual satraps.

Scyths

Peoples who were perceived as dangerous equestrian tribes inhabiting areas along the Black Sea, the Don and the Dnieper rivers to the lower Danube, were collectively referred to as ‘Scyths’ by ancient sources. The Greek historian Herodotus describes their society and customs at length in the fourth book of his Histories. In the seventh and sixth centuries bc they entertained close trade relations with the Greek colonies along the Black Sea coast. Some of these tribes settled in these regions whereas others at times moved deep into Western Asia. Among the most famous Scythian tribes are the Sakai, who inhabited the region east of the Caspian Sea. Later, the name ‘Scyths’ was used for tribes of the Iranian Sarmatae and the nomadic tribes who lived around the Black Sea.

Silk Road

The Silk Road or Silk Route was a famous ancient trading route, which was used for trading many desired luxury goods such as silk, pottery, mirrors and pigments but also facilitated the exchange between different religions and cultures. The Silk Road extended from China across the oases of the Tarim River valley to the West. It went through Samarkhand, Merv, Ekbatana (Hamadan) into Mesopotamia, from there it continued to Syria, via Palmyra to Antioch on the Orontes or Tyrus to the Eastern Mediterranean.

Solidus

Because of the increase in the price of gold Constantine replaced the previous gold denomination, the aureus, with this slightly lighter gold coin, which during the course of late antiquity became the main Roman denomination. The solidus weighed 1/72 of a Roman pound of gold.

Tabularius

In the Roman Empire a tabularius was responsible for dispatching and delivering letters or other written communications. He could be commissioned by private individuals or by public institutions. Because of their large numbers, imperial messengers (tabularii Augusti) were organised according to the example of the military and belonged to the respective fields of imperial administration. When they dispatched particularly important official communications they were allowed to use the cursuspublicus, the imperial mail system.

Tetrarchy

The modern term tetrarchy refers to the simultaneous rule of four emperors, two Augusti and two Caesars, with the latter of lower status than the former. This system was introduced by Diocletian in ad 293. Each of the four tetrarchs was in charge of one of four geographic areas within the Empire. By way of adoption all four tetrarchs were closely related. The reigns of each were carefully fixed beforehand in order to secure and determine succession. Although this system was abandoned in favour of dynastic rule after Constantine had defeated Licinius in 324, the model of‘multiple rule’ clearly influenced the character of imperial government in late antiquity.

Vassal kings

In Iran these were individual local princes who tried to retain their independence from the central power, the King ofkings. In the Parthian Empire the claim for power of the vassal kings led to the disintegration of the empire and contributed significantly to the fall of Arsacid rule.

Zarathustra/Zoroaster — Zarathustrianism/Zoroastrianism Zoroaster is the Greek form of the old Iranian male name Zarathustra. The Iranian religion of Zarathustrianism/Zoroastrianism was named after this religious founder or prophet. His date is as controversial as his origins. The prevalent view is that he lived around iooo bc in central Asia/Eastern Iran. However, both a much earlier date (c. i200 bc) and a much later lifetime in the seventh or sixth century bc, which would correspond to the ancient tradition, have been suggested.