Julian the Apostate (Flavius Claudius Julianus)

Emperor from 361 to 363 Julianus was the last pagan ruler of the Roman Empire and rivaled the greatest of his predecessors in intelligence. He was born at Constantinople, the son of Julius Constantius, half brother of Constantine the Great, and Basilina, daughter of the governor of Egypt. Basilina died just after his birth, and his father was murdered in the palace massacre following the death of Constantine in 337. Julian was spared only because of his age, and he and his half-brother Gallus were the only survivors.

For several years he studied grammar and literature under the tutor Mardonius in Constantinople. in 342, however, the cautious constantius ii moved both Julian and Gallus to Nicomedia and then to a villa in Macellum, in Cappadocia. Education there followed Christian traditions, but Julian developed a taste for pagan literature. Despite serving as a reader in the Christian Church, he continued his pagan preferences privately. Sometime around 348, Constantius allowed Julian to return to Constantinople; he returned to Nicomedia in 351. There he was able to travel and follow his own pursuits in Neoplatonism and pseudo-mystical or magical paganism. He studied with Maximus of Ephesus and turned away from the Christian Church in secret. Through the intercession of Constantius’s wife Eusebia, Julian first traveled to Mediolanum (Milan) and then to Athens, where he completed his study of pagan literature. Another summons arrived in 355, however, and he was informed that he had been chosen by Constantius to be elevated to the rank of Caesar. Gallus Caesar had once held that position but had been tried and executed for treason. On November 6, 355, Julian was invested and then married to Helena, Constantius’s sister.

Julian was sent to the frontier to repel the invasions of the Franks and Alamanni in Gaul. With surprising skill and adroit strategic sense, the young prince inflicted serious defeats upon the barbarians, most notably at Strasbourg in 357. Further expeditions reestablished Roman supremacy on the Rhine and earned Julian the respect of his soldiers and of the civilian population.

Constantius had desired success, but not to the degree displayed by Julian. Listening to his courtiers, he commanded Julian to send his best troops to the East, to be used in the upcoming war with Persia. The command was useless, because Julian’s men mutinied and in February 360, at Lutetia (Paris), declared him emperor. Despite negotiations, both Constantius and Julian knew that war was inevitable. In 361, Julian set out against the imperial forces, but Constantius died of a fever near Mopsucrene in Cilicia, and Julian entered Constantinople in December of that year, unopposed.

He began his reign by throwing off his Christian background, thus earning himself the historical title of “Apostate.” He declared that all religions in the empire were to be tolerated and gave generous donations to pagan groups. The aim of Julian was to resurrect the traditional Roman paganism, if necessary, at the expense of

A bronze majorina of Julian the Apostate, struck in late 326-363, at Sirmium (Courtesy Historical Coins, Inc.)

Christianity. He thus dismissed Christian teachers, put an end to state subsidies and organized pagan worship in all of the provinces.

Personally, Julian added to the new pagan emphasis by authoring several works displaying his own philosophy and spirit. He wrote Hymn to the Sun God; a praise to the Mother of all the Gods; To a Priest, a work extolling the virtues of pagan priesthoods; and, most importantly, Against the Galileans, an attack on Christianity. Julian was clearly unimpressed with the effects of Christianity on the empire. Christians had slaughtered most of his family and had proven totally incapable of defending the borders.

There was little support for his return to paganism, despite his efforts. Also, the Romans disliked his attempts to improve the lot of the Jews in the empire, including his plans to rebuild the Great Temple in Jerusalem. He turned then to the economic condition of the empire and began to institute reforms in its vast bureaucratic world. Finances were tightened and inflation was curbed as a result. Aid was also given to the provinces, mainly in the East, where he had the greatest support.

Julian believed that a long war with Persia was necessary and began preparations for yet another struggle with the Sassanids in 362. Many omens were visible throughout the empire. A famine struck Antioch as a result of drought, a crisis left unrelieved by the local council, which protested Julian’s insistence on their attendance at a pagan ritual. The temple of Daphne there was struck by fire, which made the attendance unnecessary.

Undaunted by the opposition and the signs, Julian set out with his army of some 65,000 infantry and cavalry in March of 363. He crossed the Syrian desert and descended the Euphrates, capturing small cities and winning a large battle over the forces of Shapur II. Ctesiphon was reached in June but could not be stormed. Aware of his dwindling food supply and harassed by Shapur’s light cavalry, Julian ordered a tactical retreat up the Tigris. On June 26 he was wounded in a skirmish and died a short time later. A general, Jovian, assumed the purple and extricated the army from its precarious position. Julian’s body was taken back to Constantinople.

Aside from his pagan works, he also wrote the Beard-Hater, a satire on the discourteous people of Antioch; The Caesars, a humorous review of the previous emperors; as well as many panegyrics, eulogies, and letters. His Consolation was written in sorrow at the departure of Saturni-nus Sallustius Secundus, his friend, from the court.