To the ancient Mesopotamians, light and darkness, life and death, were two halves of a whole. Inanna, the goddess of heaven, ruled the living world, and her sister Ereshkigal (pronounced ay-RESH-kee-gahl), or darkness, was queen of the dead. Neither sister could exist without the other; together they made existence complete. But while Inanna lived in the world that could be seen by humans, Ereshkigal was invisible. Mesopotamian artists never portrayed Ereshkigal directly, but they did create images of the monsters and demons that Ereshkigal sent to trouble the living.
Vigorous Baal. Although El remained supreme, Baal became a king among the gods. He defeated Yam, also called Leviathan (pronounced luh-VYE-uh-thuhn), who represented the destructive force of nature and was associated with the sea or with floods. Baal also had to make peace with his sister Anat, a goddess of fertility, who conducted a bloody sacrifice of warriors. Finally, Baal and Anat went to the underworld to confront Mot, the god of death. El presided over the battle between Baal and Mot. Neither god won.
Other Ugaritic myths deal with legendary kings. Although these tales may have some basis in historical fact, the details are lost. One legend told the story of King Keret, who longed for a son. In a dream, El told Keret to take the princess of a neighboring kingdom as his wife. Promising to honor Anat and Ashera, the king did so, and his new wife bore seven sons and a daughter. However, Keret became ill and neglected the worship of the goddesses. Only a special ceremony to Baal could restore the king’s health and the health of the kingdom. This myth illustrates the Semitic belief that the gods sent good or ill fortune to the people through the king.
Jewish and Christian Myths As Judaism developed over the centuries, new stories, sacred books, and commentary emerged to expand on the ancient texts. The term midrash refers to this large body of Jewish sacred literature, including a vast number of myths, legends, fables, and stories that date from the medieval era or earlier. These narratives are called the Haggadah (pronounced huh-GAH-duh), or “telling,” and they are cherished as both instruction and entertainment.
Sometimes the Haggadah fills in the gaps that exist in older narratives. For example, Genesis contains an account of how Cain murdered Abel. The Haggadah adds the information that no one knew what to do with Abel’s body, for his was the first death that humans had witnessed. Adam, the father ofCain and Abel, saw a raven dig a hole in the ground and bury a dead bird, and he decided to bury Abel in the same way.
Jewish tradition influenced Christianity, a monotheistic faith that began as an offshoot of Judaism. The two religions share many sacred stories and texts. The Tanach, especially the books of Genesis and Exodus, contains stories that are part of Christianity—God’s creation of the earth, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, Noah and the flood, and Moses and the Exodus. However, the New Testament of the Bible, which deals with the life and works of Jesus, is unique to Christianity.
Islamic Myths Like Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic Semitic faith that developed from Jewish traditions. Islam dates from 622 ce, when an Arab named Muhammad declared himself to be the prophet of God, or Allah (pronounced ah-LAH). Islamic tradition recognizes Abraham, Noah, Moses, and other ancient figures of Judaism as earlier prophets. Muslims, followers of Islam, also believe that Jesus was a prophet.
The word of Allah as made known to Muhammad is contained in the Islamic sacred text, the Qur’an or Koran. As time passed, Muslim scholars and teachers all over the Islamic world added more information about Muhammad and his followers, as well as interpretations of Islamic law and the sayings of the prophet. They incorporated elements of Semitic, Persian, and Greek mythology or stories about Muhammad, his family, and other key figures in Islamic history.
Although such storytelling was not officially part of Islam—and was sometimes vigorously discouraged by Islamic authorities—it appealed to many Muslims. As Islam spread to new areas, local traditions and legends became mingled with the basic Islamic beliefs. In Pakistan, for example, folk tales about girls dying of love came to be seen as symbols of souls longing to be united with Allah.
Many of the legends surrounding Muhammad credit him with miraculous events. Some tales say that Muhammad cast no shadow, or that when he was about to eat poisoned meat, the food itself warned him not to taste it. According to legend, the angel Gabriel guided Muhammad, who rode a winged horse called Buraq or Borak, on a mystical journey through heaven, where he met the other prophets.
Similarly, historical figures who founded mystical Islamic brotherhoods came to be associated with stories of miracles, such as riding on lions and curing the sick. In some cases, these legends have elements of traditional myths about pre-Islamic deities or heroes. Romantic tales about Alexander the Great may have colored some of the tales about Khir, an Islamic mythical figure and the patron of travelers, who is said to have been a companion of Moses.
World History
