Spring and Autumn period See eastern zhou

DYNASTY.

Sras Srang The Sras Srang, “royal bath,” is a small BARAY (reservoir) measuring 700 by 300 meters (770 by 330 yds.) located south of the eastern baray at angkor in Cambodia. It was constructed during the reign of RAJENDRAVARMAN (944-68 C. E.), and a contemporary INSCRIPTION decrees that tame elephants should not be permitted to bathe in it or damage its earth dykes. The baray was embellished under jayavarman vii (1181-1219), who added a laterite and sandstone platform, a large statue of GARUDA, and access stairs to the water. A chance discovery at the northwest corner of the Sras Srang uncovered three pottery jars containing cremated human remains associated with bronze Buddha images. The French archaeologist B.-P Groslier subsequently excavated extensively and found further mortuary jars containing human ashes. offerings included Chinese ceramic vessels, ceramic figures, bronze mirrors, iron weapons, ingots, and pieces of lead. A tin vessel was associated with one cremation, and one pot contained seven lead ingots. In one instance, a pair of bronze mirrors was found on an east-west orientation. The ivory handle survived on another mirror. Bronze images of the Buddha and Vishnu riding the eagle Garuda were also recovered.

Sravasti Sravasti was the capital of the mahajanapada of Kosala. It was designated one of the cities fit to receive the remains of the Buddha after his cremation and is located next to a former channel of the Rapti River, a tributary of the Ganges (Ganga) River in northern India. The city was visited by xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, in the early seventh century C. E. He described the old palace city as lying in ruins but was still able to trace its boundaries as measuring about 12 kilometers (7.2 mi.). A disciple of the Buddha, Sudatta-Anathapindika, founded a monastery there for the use of the Buddha, and this is known as the Jetavana Vihara. This gift is recorded in a second-century B. C.E. INSCRIPTION on one of the railing pillars of the stupa there; the text describes how Anathapindika bought the Jetavana Park by covering it with coins and presenting it to the Buddhist community. This monastery forms the nucleus of Saheth, that part of Sravasti that was the focus of Buddhist pilgrimage and worship. It is enclosed by a wall. xuanzang described this monastery as lying about three kilometers south of the city, but it too lay in ruins. He also saw two stone columns standing 20 meters (66 ft.) high, one topped with a wheel, the other with the carving of a lion. Both were erected, he said, by King asoka. Maheth, on the other hand, is the fortified city of Sravasti.

The Jetavana monastery was examined in detail by sir ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM in 1875-76. He found the site covered in jungle and used an elephant to move through the dense vegetation to identify walls and foundations. Excavations undertaken in 1959 identified three periods. Initial settlement took place during the period when NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE was in vogue, dated to about 500-300 B. C.E. The mud ramparts, with a fired-brick addition, belong to Period 2, when punch-marked coins were used. This period belongs to the last three centuries B. C.E., and during the third period, occupation continued into the first centuries C. E. The monastic establishment continued for many centuries, for an inscription of the 12th century recorded a gift of land to the Jetavana monastery.

See also coinage.

Sreshthapura See wat phu.

Sri Ksetra The Chinese monk I ching in the seventh century C. E. described a city probably located in the Irrawaddy Valley of Myanmar (Burma), which he named Sri Ksetra.

EXCAVATIONS AT SRI KSETRA

Reporting in 1926, Charles Duroiselle described his excavations at the Khinba mound. This site was identified after villagers found stone sculptures representing Vishnu, but the mound turned out to be the base of a Buddhist stupa. Many votive terra-cotta tablets were found; the prize was the intact relic chamber, sealed with a large stone. This slab bore a relief carving of a stupa, whose form matched that of the large stupa of Bawbawgyi. Removal of this stone revealed a brick-lined chamber in the center of which lay a miniature silver stupa surrounded by four Buddha figures each with an attendant. The stupa was inscribed in Pyu and PALI of a style characteristic of the sixth century C. E. Each text names the figure facing it as being one of Buddha’s disciples. A Pyu text also names two individuals, Sri Prabhuvarma and Sri Prabhudevi, who are probably the founding king and the queen. Other items in this relic chamber provide some idea of the wealth that is missing from other such monuments as a result of widespread looting. They include a superb gold statue of the Buddha standing 15 centimeters (6 in.) high, seated on a throne. A second such gold statue was found, but without the throne. No fewer than 50 other Buddha statues were recovered, in gold, silver, and lead, varying in height from 2.5 to 12.5 centimeters (1 to 5 in.). There were 24 silver or gold plates with relief images of the Buddha, a glass image of the Buddha, silver plates bearing images of door guardians, many silver bowls, silver or gold caskets, and five gold trays. Forty-five silver coins were also found among the offerings, together with 20 inscribed gold leaves. Extraordinarily, these gold leaves were bound together with gold wire, which was threaded through two holes on each leaf. When the wire was cut, it was possible to unfold and read the texts. Each leaf incorporated three lines in Pali of sacred Buddhist texts. The DHARMA preached by the Buddha is one of the four objects of veneration that might be included in a stupa reliquary; the others are the actual remains of the Buddha, his personal belongings, or items from places the Buddha had visited. The catalogue of finds from this remarkable deposit continues with a large assemblage of beads in gold, quartz, carnelian, amethyst, chalcedony, glass, and jade and 12 jade figurines of elephants. One of these is only 12 millimeters (0.48 in.) long. There are silver and gold lotuses, gold and silver bells, gold and silver cups, butterflies, statuettes of deer in gold, and a silver duck. These finds, which could have originated only with a royal foundation, stress the extraordinary amount of information that has been lost to the widespread looting that had afflicted such monuments even a century ago.

Two years later Duroiselle continued his research at Sri Ksetra with the examination of a series of 34 stupas and burial mounds. One stupa foundation contained a brick-lined chamber just over one meter square, in which he found eight bronze images of the Buddha, each about 10 centimeters (4 in.) tall. This chamber lay over a second, which contained many terra-cotta votive tablets of 10th-century style, bearing SANSKRIT holy texts. Outside the city walls, he investigated a low mound also with a relic chamber and found a superb hollow gold image of the Buddha. It contained a tiny silver casket full of cremated ash. During this season, a villager took to Duroiselle a strip of gold about 20 centimeters (8 in.) long, on which an inscription in Pali set out a Buddhist sacred writing. Such gold plaques have also been found in the FUNAN sites of the Mekong Delta. A further archaeological discovery in the 1966-67 excavation season provided insight into the skill of the bronze casters and aspects of city life: a group of five figures each standing 110 centimeters (3.6 ft.) in height. Two are dancing, while the others play musical instruments. The elegant hairstyles and profusion of jewelry worn by these Pyu entertainers enhance the appreciation of life in this huge urban complex. A further bronze of Avalokites-vara had been found near the Bobogyi stupa in 1911.

XUANZANG, a Chinese pilgrim, described this Buddhist capital of a state in about 643 C. E. The large walled and moated city of Hmawza is widely considered to have been a major capital of this pyu civilization. A Sanskrit inscription dating on stylistic grounds to the seventh century C. E. describes two cities, each ruled by a separate dynasty. Sri Ksetra was probably one of these cities. Another inscription in Old Mon from the Shwehsandaw temple describes the mythical founding of Sri Ksetra in 544 B. C.E. It lies in the valley of the Nawin River just east of the modern city of Prome. Here the rivers flowing from the Pegu Yoma are a source of irrigation water in an area where rainfall itself is insufficient for the cultivation of rice.

Burmese tradition has it that Sri Ksetra was founded by King Duttabaung about 2,400 years ago. He captured Princess Panhtwar of beikthano and took her to his city.

This piece of oral history might well reflect warfare between rival Pyu centers: Both at Beikthano and at halin there is widespread evidence for destruction by fire. Sri Ksetra fell into a decline during the ninth century and was abandoned.

THE CITY PLAN

Sri Ksetra has an oval plan, demarcated by a massive brick wall and a moat enclosing an area of 1,880 hectares (4,700 acres). A rectangular enclosure just south of the city center, measuring 650 by 350 meters (715 by 385 yds.), was probably a palace precinct. There are also many other moated enclosures, both within and beyond the walls, which may have enclosed religious structures. The study of aerial photographs has also identified two large reservoirs within the city walls and the large eastern reservoir beyond the eastern walls. Janice Stargardt has further noted possible field systems that would have been fed by IRRIGATION water. Several stupas have survived, confirming the dominance of buddhism in the Pyu state. The Bob-ogyi stupa, dating to the seventh or eighth century on the basis of its votive tablets, has a cylindrical form above five circular terraces and lies just south of the city wall. The Lemyethna temple, also outside the city wall, is of square form with four entrances. The foundations of a large hall have been uncovered by excavation near the Shedaga city gate. It was 30 meters (99 ft.) long and 20 (66 ft.) wide, and the superstructure was made of wood. The Payamagyi stupa lies north of the city wall, and an adjacent brick structure contained stone mortuary vessels inscribed with the names of three kings. These have been translated by Charles Blagden as follows: “A relative of Suryavikrama died in 673 c. E. Suryavikrama died in 688 c. E. at the age of 64. Harivikrama died in 695 C. E. at the age of 41, and Sihavikrama died in 718 C. E. at the age of 44 years.” It is highly likely that these kings were members of a ruling dynasty Other large stone urns have also been recovered and were in all probability the burial places of the elite. Finely decorated stone “thrones” have been recovered, confirming a megalithic aspect of the Pyu monumental carving.

Many brick mortuary structures lie outside the city walls, as at the related Pyu city of Beikthano. The brick temples and stupas were formerly covered in plaster and presumably decorated. Many of the plans and elevations anticipate those of PAGAN, and large stone images of the Buddha and Hindu deities, particularly vishnu, make clear the religious leanings of the Pyu rulers. Small statues and precious artifacts in gold and silver have been found.

Sringaverapur Sringaverapur is a historic Indian city site located on the banks of the Ganges (Ganga) River. Already known as a major site mentioned in the RAMAYANA, it was excavated in 1977-85 under the direction of B. B. Lal. Late prehistoric settlement was revealed, followed by occupation during the maurya empire (324-c. 200 b. c.e.), when a remarkable tank was constructed to store floodwaters from the Ganges (Ganga) River. This was followed by kushan occupation, during which houses were constructed.

Sri Thep Sri Thep is strategically located in the valley of the Pa Sak River in central Thailand. It is a large moated settlement covering 4.7 square kilometers (1.88 sq. mi.). As many dvaravati civilization sites have, it has prehistoric origins; historic occupation began in the sixth century and lasted at least into the 13th century C. E. Several monuments lie within the moated precinct, most prominent of which is the Khao Klang Nai temple with its stucco friezes. One frieze depicts crouching dwarfs, some with the head of a lion or a cow. Further finds include part of a “wheel of the law” (dharmacakra) and bronze images of the Buddha. Lying on the western margins of the kingdom of ANGKOR in Cambodia, the site was heavily influenced and probably incorporated into this state. Prang Song Phi Nong and Prang Sri Thep were built in the 11th to 12th centuries; images of siva, Vishnu, Surya, and Krishna have been found at or near Sri Thep.

Srivijaya Srivijaya was a kingdom centered on the island of Sumatra in indonesia. Several inscriptions in Old Malay recovered from the vicinity of palembang reveal the presence of a king named Jayanasa, who followed BUDDHiSM, created a public park for making merit, and expanded his domain through maritime and land-based military campaigns. According to the Chinese monk i CHiNG, there were then a walled capital and a population of more than 1,000 Buddhist monks versed in the sacred scriptures. According to his report, they had gold and silver images of the Buddha and gold ritual vessels in the form of lotus flowers. Palembang, the capital, was situated on the bank of the Musi River, which gave it direct access to the sea and international trading routes. The wealth and power of Srivijaya were largely based on this favorable location for participating in trade, which linked China with India and Persia. However, its continued prosperity also depended on controlling rival port states, and the INSCRIPTIONS and contemporary accounts suggest that Srivijaya incorporated potential rivals in its own polity.

Thus Palembang was first and foremost a port. It is located on the southeastern part of Sumatra, so as to control the Strait of Melaka to the north and the Sunda Strait that separates Sumatra and Java to the south. As Chinese trade began to bypass the Mekong Delta and go directly to Sumatra, the state of funan declined, and Srivijaya expanded. Aerial pictures have revealed possible docking facilities at Palembang. An inscription dated to 683 c. E. describes a military expedition with a force of 2,000 against the rival port center of Jambi-Malayu. A second inscription from Nakhon Sri Thammarat on the east coast of peninsular Thailand illustrates this point, for it describes how in 775 C. E. a Buddhist king of Srivijaya founded a monastery there. Further archaeological evidence for Srivijayan presence in peninsular Thailand, and therefore control of the transisthmian trade routes, is from the sites of Chaiya, where the temples of Phra Boromathat and Wat Kaew were constructed, and from Yarang in the valley of the Pattani River on the east coast of the peninsula.

The Musi River is also rich in silt, and flooding would have laid down alluvia that encouraged rice production in the vicinity of Palembang. It would also have been possible to augment rice production through irrigaTION based on tidal flows and therefore flooding on the margins of the lower river. This would have been vital in sustaining the large number of visitors and members of the Srivijayan merchant marine.

Further reading: SPAFA. Consultative Workshop on Archaeological and Environmental Studies on Srivijaya (I-W2b), Jakarta, Padang, Prapat, and Medan, Indonesia, September 16-30, 1985 Final Report. Bangkok: SPAFA, 1885; Wolters, O. W The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay History. London: Lund Humphries, 1970.

Steatite Steatite is a variety of talc that is soft and therefore easily carved and has a fine luster. It was widely used in India for beads, seals, boxes, and statuettes. Steatite was a vital part of the material culture of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION, particularly in the manufacture of SEALS. After detailed engraving or shaping, steatite can be heated to above 1100°C (2012°F) to harden it. Steatite paste can also be molded into shape and then finished by heating.

Stein, Sir Aurel (1862-1943) Hungarian-born explorer-archaeologist who more than any other scholar brought the cultures of the Silk Road to prominence.

Born in Budapest, Hungary, Aurel Stein studied Persian and Indian archaeology at the University of Tubingen in Germany before settling in England in 1884 to undertake further studies in classical and eastern archaeology at the University of Oxford. In 1888 he was appointed registrar of Punjab University at Lahore, Pakistan, and during his free time began archaeological explorations in Kashmir and the Northwest Frontier. Twelve years later, with the enthusiastic support of the viceroy of India, Lord (George) Curzon, he embarked on the first of his four major exploratory journeys to Inner Asia. These took him to the oasis cities of the TARIM BASIN in western China; the Han Chinese western limes, or frontier; and, most famously, to the mogao caves. There he secured a fabulous collection of Buddhist manuscripts that now reside in the British Museum. His Central Asian research, which he pursued with unflagging energy under the most arduous of circumstances, resulted in a series of massive reports on his findings. When political conditions ruled out proposed fieldwork in Central Asia, he turned his attention to the Roman Empire’s eastern border with parthia and the itinerary of Alexander’s conquest of the Persian Empire. His long-term desire to undertake fieldwork in Afghanistan, continually thwarted by the authorities there, was finally permitted in 1943. However, he suffered a stroke and died only a few days after reaching Kabul, where he was buried.

See also cherchen; dunhuang; endere; gandhara; lou-lan; miran; niya; shan-shan; silk road.

Sufutun Sufutun is an important site dated to the period of the shang state in Shandong province, China. In 1965 four large graves were excavated, and the wealth of finds, despite severe looting, indicated the presence of a royal center. One of the four graves followed the layout well known at the Shang capital of anyang in having a central rectangular tomb chamber linked with a large main entrance ramp and three entrance passageways forming a cruciform shape. The chamber itself measured 15 by 11 meters (49.5 by 36.3 ft.), and the longest access ramp, the only one to give direct access to the tomb, was 26 meters (85.8 ft.) long. The junction of the ramp and the tomb chamber was choked with the remains of human sacrificial victims, of whom 47 individuals were counted. There were also five dog skeletons. Despite the destruction of this burial by robbers, more than 4,000 cowry shells were recovered. Cowries symbolized wealth and fertility and could have been obtained only through long-distance trade with the south. The grave pit was surrounded by a podium in which three ancillary burials were placed. The northern wall of the podium contained two further pits for large ceremonial bronze axes. This grave, in all probability, was that of a regional king of the state of Bogu, which is mentioned in the oracle-bone records as being an ally of the Shang.

Suixian See leigudun.

Sulamani temple The Sulamani temple at pagan in Myanmar (Burma), built during the reign of King Narap-atisithu in 1181, is a colossal temple in a walled precinct.

The Sulamani temple at Pagan, Myanmar (Burma), was built under the reign of King Narapatisithu in 1181. It is one of the largest temples at this remarkable site. (© Luca I. Tettoni/CORBIS)

It has two floors surrounded by terraces bearing small stupas. It represents the last major phase of temple construction at this royal capital in central Myanmar (Burma).

Sunga The Sunga dynasty of India was founded when Pushyamitra Sunga killed Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king, in 185 b. c.e. He had inherited the considerable extent of the maurya empire and defended it against the BACTRIAN GREEK incursions in the west and those of King Kharavela of Orissa in the east. By degrees, however, much territory was lost, including the area of Sind, and the 10th and last king, Vasudeva, was himself killed in about 73 B. C.E.

Sunzi (c. fourth century b. c.e.) Sunzi, or Master Sun, was the leading militarist thinker during the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 b. c.e.) in China.

The tension at this time was but a prelude to the warring STATES PERIOD (475-221 B. C.E.). Many philosophers arose in this period of social ferment. On the one hand, CONFUCIUS and MENCIUS advocated righteousness, humanity, and old chivalric values. On the other, the legalists and militarists took a pragmatic view rooted in the principle of survival. while the legalists argued for autocratic central power, the militarists laid down a new ethic in battle, which ran counter to the long tradition of chivalry. He probably lived during the late Spring and Autumn period. A contemporary of Confucius, Sunzi advocated an entirely new and totalitarian approach to war. Sunzi stressed the vital importance of knowledge of every possible aspect of war: the terrain, the weather, the morale and psychology of the troops, the state of the enemy, and their tactics. As in a game of chess, he urged the importance of timing: “What is meant to be skilled is to be victorious over the easily defeated.”

His words were written during the third century B. C.E. and have long been influential. Further texts relating to Sunzi have been found on bamboo slips from Tomb 1 at Yinqueshan in Shandong province, dating to the second century b. c.e. These incorporate questions and answers on war between Sunzi and Wuzi. The Confucian school particularly resented his advocacy of deception as a military tactic. “When able,” he said, “manifest inability. Attack when the enemy is unprepared.” While recommending orthodox tactics such as not attacking when backed by water, or when there is no escape, he also identified the means to take advantage of the unusual or unorthodox. He was also incisive in setting out appropriate strategy, for example, when deep in enemy territory: “Throw the troops where they cannot leave, for facing death, they will not be routed.”

Surkh-Kotal Surkh-Kotal was a temple set in a fortress built during the reign of kanishka i, the kushan king who ruled from 100 to 126 C. E. Located near the headwaters of the Amu Dar’ya River in Afghanistan, it included a series of four platforms linked by stairways that culminate in a colonnaded temple probably dedicated to the Kushan ancestors. Its design shows strong Achaemenid Persian influence.

Surkhotada Field surveys undertaken in 1964-68 on the eastern margins of the Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat province, India, identified a series of sites ascribed to the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION. This Rann is now much silted, but it was formerly an arm of the sea that facilitated maritime trade, and many Harappan sites are found along its shoreline. Surkhotada is one of these. It is a very small rural settlement when compared with the great cities farther west, covering only 1.4 hectares (3.5 acres). Nevertheless, the spatial layout incorporated, as in the main Indus cities, a citadel adjoining a residential quarter, both created in about 2300 b. c.e. The difference between this small site and the major cities of the Indus is that the so-called citadel and the residential area are of the same size. Mud-brick houses, baths, and drains were all laid out, and SEALS and the INDUS valley civilization script on pottery vessels indicate literacy and trade. The finding of horse bones confirms the presence of this domestic animal in Indus sites.

The defenses are a particular feature of this site, being thick and fortified at the corners with bastions. Excavations along the line of the southern fortification wall have revealed two entrance gateways, giving access to each half of the site, while a third gateway links the two parts of the settlement internally As at rangpur, the site continued to be occupied into the second millennium b. c.e. The fortifications were strengthened during this period, and houses with an average of five rooms were in use. Excavations by J. E Joshi in 1971-72 revealed that the site was occupied during the mature Harappan phase; there were three subphases dating to 2500-1900 b. c.e. However, 300 meters (990 ft.) northwest of the walls, he found a cemetery demarcated by stone cairns with capstones over interments in oval or rectangular shallow graves. This method of disposing of the dead has not been found at other Harappan sites. The human remains were fragmentary, and one such grave contained none. However, the mortuary vessels were more akin to early Harappan styles.

Suryaparvata See ehnom chisor.

Suryavarman I (r. c. 1002-1049 c. e.) Suryavarman I (Protege of the Sun) was the first king of a new dynasty who ruled at Angkor in Cambodia.

His origins and legitimacy remain obscure, and some have traced his ancestry to a homeland in Malaysia. His outstanding achievement was arguably the construction of the WESTERN BARAY at Angkor, the largest reservoir (baray) of the Angkorian kingdom. Beyond the capital, he energetically ordered building works at Preah Vihear, preah khan OF KOMPONG SVAY, and Phnom Chisor and was responsible for the construction of roads and rest houses. Michael Vickery, on the basis of 13 lengthy inscriptions that set out the dynastic histories of the great aristocratic families of the preceding two centuries, has suggested that Suryavarman was a member of the elite Saptadevakula lineage, whose members claimed descent from King indravarman I (877-89). If so, under the flexible rules of succession, he and his faction could have claimed legitimacy. The surviving texts make it clear that years of civil war between Suryavarman and Jayaviravarman preceded the former’s reign. Suryavarman’s early inscriptions concentrate in eastern Cambodia, but after 1005 no more is heard of Jayaviravarman, and by 1010 Suryavarman appeared at Angkor. Shortly thereafter, his inscriptions, or those mentioning his name, are also found to the west of the capital.

In 1011 King Suryavarman I summoned his officials to swear an oath of allegiance. They offered their lives and unswerving devotion to the king in the presence of the sacred fire. The officials promised to safeguard the meritorious foundations of the country and urged the king to punish severely those who supported any rival. Further to consolidate his position, in 1018 he had inscriptions set in place at preah vihear, phnom chisor, Wat Baset, and an unidentified location probably to the east of Angkor, in which lingams named Suryavarmesvara were erected to identify the boundaries of his kingdom. Suryavarman was responsible for a burst of building activity at Angkor. He placed his palace north of the BAKHENG, within the bounds of the future angkor thom, and ordered the construction of the relatively small royal temple of the phimeanakas.

Suryavarman II (r. 1113-1150 c. e.) Suryavarman II (Protege of the Sun) was king of Angkor in Cambodia.

His temple mausoleum, known today as angkor wat, is one of the world’s outstanding buildings. A devotee of Vishnu, Suryavarman took power in a battle against his great-uncle. For the first time for any Angkorian king, it is possible to see his image, carved on the reliefs of Angkor Wat. He is portrayed in battle and in his court receiving high officials. He was also renowned as a warrior who fought against the chams and pushed north and west into Thailand.

See also cham civilization.

Sutkagen Dor Sutkagen Dor is the most westerly of all INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION sites. It lies on a rocky shore in western Pakistan and was discovered in 1875. sir aurel STEIN briefly worked there, and limited excavations were later undertaken by George Dales. The site is dominated by a rectangular stone-walled citadel measuring 335 by 200 meters (369 by 220 yds.), but the extent to which there was occupation outside the defensive walls remains to be determined. The walls are robust, to 7.5 meters (24.8 ft.) wide at the base. It is possible that this site owes its existence to the passage of Indus trade vessels to Near Eastern ports. The pottery recovered belongs to the mature Indus tradition of the later third millennium b. c.e.

Svami (late fourth to the early third centuries b. c.e.) KAUTILYA, a chief minister to King Candragupta Maurya (325-297 B. C.E.) of the maurya empire in India, authored a treatise on statecraft known as the Arthasastra. He identified seven vital elements, of which the svami, or king, occupied the key position.