The set of artistic regulations called the canon of the human figure evolved in the Early Dynastic Period and was used by the ancient Egyptians as a model for representing the human figure in reliefs and paintings. This evolved within the parameters of cultic traditions. The Predynastic Period Egyptians, already deeply concerned with spiritual matters, had a need to communicate ideas and ideals through the representation of divine beings, human personages, and events. From the beginning, the Egyptians understood the propagandistic aspects of art and formulated ways in which artistic representations could serve a didactic purpose. Art was meant to convey information.
The canon of the human figure was the result of such concerns, and it was a convention by which representations could convey metaphysical concepts while at the same time bringing a vision of the material world to the viewer. The canon dealt mainly with paintings and reliefs as they were used in mortuary structures and cultic shrines, and it governed the representation of three-dimensional elements on a two-dimensional surface, which demanded anatomical knowledge, perspective, and idealized composition.
Early examples demonstrate an increasing sophistication in such compositions, represented by the NARMER PALETTE of the Predynastic Period. The Narmer palette integrated all of the earlier artistic elements while displaying a unique energy and vitality. With the start of the Old Kingdom (2575 b. c.e.), artistic conventions were being codified to provide generations of artists with formal guidelines on the proper positioning of the human figures within a scene or a pictorial narrative, or a framework of hieroglyphs and cultic symbols. According to the canon, the human figure was to be composed in a prescribed manner. To facilitate execution in reliefs and paintings, a surface was divided into 18 rows of squares (the 19th reserved for the hair). In later historical periods more rows were added.
The human figure, when sketched or traced onto a surface, was depicted from a dual perspective. The head was always shown in profile, but the human eye and eyebrow were depicted in full view. The shoulders and upper torso were also shown in full view, so that the arms, hands, and fingers were visible. The abdomen from armpit to the waist was shown in profile and the navel was normally placed on the side of the figure, directly on the edge. The legs and feet were also shown in profile, balancing the head, and until the mid-Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1400 B. C.E.) the inside of the feet was preferred over the outside in human representations.
The canon was strictly observed when artists portrayed the ruling class of Egypt. The formality allowed by the canon and its idealized conception lent grace and
The canon of the human figure, the artistic standard introduced in the Old Kingdom Period and demonstrated in this mortuary relief of the official Hesire. (Hulton Archive.)
Authority, deemed critical to royal portraits. While one might expect rigidity and a certain staleness to result from this type of regimentation, the canon provided a framework for continual elaboration, and the teams of artists who worked together to adorn the private and public shrines found a common ground for individual expression.
Artistic quality was maintained, and the needs of each generation were incorporated into the standards regulating fine art.
Develop scope and perspective. Once the carvings were completed, the walls were given a light coat of stucco, and some were touched by paints of various hues. The figures were outlined one last time so that they would come to life against the neutral backgrounds.
Furniture from this period shows the same remarkable craftsmanship and fine details, as evidenced by the funerary objects of Queen hetepheres (1), the mother of KHUFU (Cheops, r. 2551-2528 b. c.e.). Wooden furniture inlaid with semiprecious stones graced the palaces of that era and Hetepheres was buried with chairs, beds, a canopy, and gold-covered boxes. She had silver bracelets and other jewelry pieces of turquoise, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. crowns and necklaces, all of great beauty, adorned the royal mother while she lived and were placed in her tomb to adorn her throughout eternity.
Architecture
By the time the Early Dynastic period was established in MEMPHIS, experimentation and the demands of the mortuary rituals challenged the architects of Egypt to provide suitable places for the dead. The mastaba, the rectangular building erected with battered walls and subterranean chambers and shafts, became more and more elaborate. Small temples were fashioned out of stone, and one such place of worship, constructed at the end of the Second Dynasty (2649 b. c.e.) was composed of granite. Stelae began to appear. They were round-topped stone slabs designed to hold inscriptions commemorating great events and personages, religious and secular. saqqara became an elaborate necropolis for Memphis, and other mortuary complexes were erected in abydos, the city dedicated to the god OSIRIS.
The turning point in such complexes came in the reign of djoser (2630-2611 b. c.e.) when imhotep, his vizier, fashioned the step pyramid, on the Saqqara plain. This structure, composed of mastabas placed one on top of the other, became the link between the original tomb designs and the true pyramids of the next dynasty. The PYRAMID complexes that emerged in the Fifth Dynasty (2465-2323 b. c.e.) consisted of valley temples, causeways, MORTUARY TEMPLES, and accompanying subsidiary buildings. In time, they became the eternal symbol of Egypt itself and were included in the Seven Wonders of the World.
These pyramids reflected not only mathematical and construction skills but other aspects of Egyptian civilization. Rising from the plain of giza and at other locations, the structures were no longer simple tombs but stages for elaborate ceremonies where priests offered continual prayers and gifts as part of an ongoing mortuary cult. Later pharaohs were forced to reduce the size of their pyramids, eventually abandoning the form entirely because of a lack of resources, but the Giza monuments remained vivid examples of Egypt’s architectural glories.
THE MIDDLE KINGDOM (2040-1640 B. C.E.)
Art
At the close of the old Kingdom, the authority of Egypt’s rulers had eroded, bringing about severe civil unrest. one
Of the consequences was a decline in both art and architecture. The Eleventh Dynasty (2040-1991 b. c.e.) reunited Upper and Lower Egypt and resumed patronage of the arts and the building of monuments. The art of this new age was marked by realism and by a new degree of classical motifs that were revived from the Old Kingdom. An elegant and elaborate style was popular and detail became paramount, as evidenced in the head of senwos-RET III (r. 1878-1841 b. c.e.) of the Twelfth Dynasty, in which a portrait of his age and weariness are frankly depicted.
The jewelry of this period is famous in modern times because of a cache of necklaces, bracelets, and pectorals discovered in dashur, the mortuary site of the Twelfth Dynasty. Beautifully crafted of enameled gold and semiprecious stones, it attests to the artistic skill of the era. Another treasure found at el-LAHUN yielded golden wire diadems with jeweled flowers, as well as a dazzling variety of bracelets, collars, and pectorals of semiprecious stones set in gold.
Architecture
Under the nomarchs, the rulers of the nomes or provinces in outlying districts who were able to maintain their authority amid general unrest, architecture survived the fall of the old Kingdom, resulting in such sites as BENI HASAN, with its rock-carved tombs and large chapels, complete with porticoes and painted walls. The Eleventh Dynasty, however, resumed royal sponsorship of architectural projects, symbolized by the mortuary complex of MONTUHOTEP II (r. 2061-2010 B. C.E.), at DEIR EL-BAHRI on the western shore of thebes. The temple there influenced later architects and was the first complex set on terraces of varying height with a columned portico at the rear, forming a facade of the tomb. The tomb area was recessed into a cliff.
During the Middle Kingdom most of the temples were built with columned courts, halls, and chambers for rituals. The sanctuaries of these shrines were elaborate, and most had small lakes within the precincts. KARNAK was begun in this era, and in time the temple would become the largest religious complex in the history of the world. The famed temple of luxor would be linked to Karnak with an avenue of ram-headed SPHINXES.
Residences of the upper classes and some of the common abodes began to assume architectural distinction as well. Made of sun-dried brick and wood, most villas or mansions had two or three floors, connected by staircases. Storehouses, a separate kitchen area, high ceilings, and vast gardens were parts of the residential designs. Some had air vents for circulation, and all of these houses, whether owned by aristocrats or commoners, had gently sloping roofs on which Egyptian families slept in warm weather. Made of vulnerable materials, no physical examples of domestic architecture from this era survive.
Little is known of the palaces or royal residences of this period because they too were fashioned out of brick and wood. It is clear that the palaces (PERO or per-a’a) always contained two gateways, two main halls, and two administrative sections to reflect the upper and lower regions of the nation. flagstaffs were used at the gates, as they were placed before temples. The remains of the Seventeenth Dynasty (1640-1550 b. c.e.) palace at deir EL-BALLAS, on the western shore north of Thebes, indicate somewhat luxurious surroundings and innovative decoration, following the “double” scheme. In some instances the walls and floors were designed to portray pools of fish and vast tracts of flowering shrubs.
The Second Intermediate Period (1640-1532 b. c.e.) and the domination of the north by the hyksos curtailed artistic endeavors along the Nile, although the arts did not vanish. A renaissance took place, however, with the arrival of the New Kingdom after the Hyksos were driven from the land.
NEW KINGDOM (1550-1070 b. c.e.)
The New Kingdom is recognized as a period of great artistic horizon, with art and architecture evolving in three separate and quite distinct eras; the Tuthmossid Period, from the start of the New Kingdom (1550 b. c.e.) to the end of the reign of amenhotep iii (1353 b. c.e.), the ’amarna Period (1353-1335 b. c.e.), and the Ramessid Period (1307-1070 b. c.e.).
Art
Tuthmossid Period
With the expulsion of the Hyksos and the reunification of Upper and Lower Egypt, the pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty, called the Tuthmossids, began elaborate rebuilding programs in order to reflect the spirit of the new age. sculpture in the round and painting bore traces of Middle Kingdom standards while exhibiting innovations such as polychromatics and the application of a simplified cubic form.
Osiride figures, depictions of OSIRIS or of royal personages assuming the deity’s divine attire of this time, were discovered at deir el-bahri in thebes and are of painted limestone, with blue eyebrows and beards and red or yellow skin tones. Such color was even used on black granite statues in some instances. cubic forms popular in the era are evidenced by the statues of the chief steward senenmut and Princess neferu-re, his charge, encased in granite cubes. These stark forms are nonetheless touching portraits, enhanced by hieroglyphs that interpret their rank, relationship, and affection for one another. Other statues, such as one fashioned in granite as a portrait of tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 B. C.E.) demonstrated both the cubist and polychromatic styles.
Sculpture was one aspect of New Kingdom art where innovations were forged freely. In painting, artists adhered to the canon set in earlier eras but incorporated changes in their work. Egypt’s military successes, which resulted in an empire and made vassals of many Mediterranean nations, were commemorated in pictorial narratives of battles or in processions of tribute-bearers from other lands. A grace and quiet elegance permeated the works, a sureness born out of prosperity and success. The surviving tomb paintings of the era display banquets and other trappings of power, while the figures are softer, almost lyrical. The reign of amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 B. C.E.) brought this new style of art to its greatest heights.
’Amarna
The city of Akhetaten at ’amarna was erected by akhen-ATEN (r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.) in honor of the god aten, and it became the source of an artistic revolution that upset many of the old conventions. The rigid grandeur of the earlier periods was abandoned in favor of a more naturalistic style. Royal personages were no longer made to appear remote or godlike. In many scenes, in fact, Akhenaten and his queen, nefertiti, are depicted as a loving couple surrounded by their offspring. Physical deformities are frankly portrayed, or possibly imposed upon the figures, and the royal household is painted with protruding bellies, enlarged heads, and peculiar limbs.
The famed painted bust of Nefertiti, however, demonstrates a mastery that was also reflected in the magnificent pastoral scenes adorning the palace. only fragments remain, but they provide a wondrous range of animals, plants, and water scenes that stand unrivaled for anatomical sureness, color, and vitality The palaces and temples of ’Amarna were destroyed in later reigns, by pharaohs such as horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b. c.e.), who razed the site in order to use the materials for personal projects of reign.
Ramessid Period (1307—1070 b. c.e.)
From the reign of ramesses i (1307-1306 b. c.e.) until the end of the New Kingdom, art once again followed the established canon, but the influences from the Tuthmossid and ’Amarna periods were evident. The terminal years of the Twentieth Dynasty brought about a degeneration in artistic achievement, but until that time the Ramessid accomplishments were masterful. ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) embarked upon a building program unrivaled by any previous Egyptian ruler.
Ramesses II and his military units were involved in martial exploits, and the campaign narratives (popular in the reign of Tuthmosis III; r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) became the dominant subject of temple reliefs once again. Dramatic battle scenes were carved into the temple walls and depicted in the paintings in the royal tombs. Queen nefertari, the consort of Ramesses
II, was buried in a tomb that offers stunning glimpses of life on the Nile. The campaign scenes of rames-SES III (r. 1194-1163 b. c.e.) at medinet habu are of equal merit and are significant because they rank among the major artistic achievements of the Ramessid period.
Architecture Tuthmossid Period
Architecture at the start of the New Kingdom reflected the new vitality of a unified land. Its focus shifted from the tomb to the temple, especially those honoring the god AMUN and those designed as mortuary shrines. The mortuary temple of hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.) at deir el-bahri at Thebes allowed the architects of her reign the opportunity to erect a masterpiece. Three ascending colonnades and terraces were set into the cliffs on the western shore and were reached by two unusual ramps providing stunning visual impact on the site. The temples of the other pharaohs of this era are less grand but equally elegant. The great temple and recreational complex of AMENHOTEP III (r. 1391-1353 B. C.E.), which included chapels, shrines, and residences set into a manmade lake, was a masterpiece of architectural design. This is known as malkata. Karnak and Luxor, both massive in scale, reflected the enthusiasm for building of the Tuth-mossids. Although several stages of construction took place at the sites, the architects were able to integrate them into powerful monuments of cultic designs.
’Amarna
The entire city of el-’Amarna was laid out with precision and care, leading to the temple of the god aten. The distinctive aspect of these buildings was the absence of a roof. The rays of the divine sun, a manifestation of Aten, were allowed to reach into every corner, providing light and inspiration. The window of appearance was displayed there, and the actual grid layouts of the city were masterful and innovative interpretations of earlier architectural styles.
Ramessid Period
The period of Ramessid architecture, which can be said to include horemhab’s tomb in Saqqara, was marked by construction on a gigantic scale. Three of the greatest
Figures at Abu Simbel display the Egyptian sense of sureness with stone in monumental art. (Courtesy Thierry Ailleret.)
Builders in Egyptian history, seti i (r. 1306-1290 b. c.e.) and RAMESSES II (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) of the Nineteenth Dynasty and ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b. c.e.) of the Twentieth Dynasty, reigned during this age.
Seti began work on the second and third pylons of Karnak and instituted the Great Hall, completed by his son, Ramesses II. Ramesses II also built the rames-SEUM in Thebes. He left an architectural legacy as well at per-ramesses, the new capital in the eastern Delta. Medinet Habu, Ramesses Ill’s mortuary temple complex, which included a brick palace, displays the same architectural grandeur. This was the last great work of the Ramessid era of the New Kingdom.
The most famous of the Ramessid monuments, other than the great mortuary temples at Abydos, was ABU sim-BEL, completed on the 30th anniversary of Ramesses’ reign. The rock-carved temple was hewn out of pink limestone. With the fall of the Ramessids in 1070 b. c.e., Egypt entered into a period of decline.
THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1070-712 B. C.E.)
The division of Egypt into two separate domains, one dominating politically in the Delta and the other held by the high priests of Amun in the south, resulted in a collapse of artistic endeavors in the Third Intermediate Period. The rulers of the Twenty-first (1070-945 b. c.e.) and Twenty-second (945-712 b. c.e.) Dynasties had few resources for advanced monumental construction. At times they had even less approval or cooperation from the Egyptian people.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE The modest royal tombs of this period, mostly constructed at Tanis, were built in the courtyards of existing temples. They are not elaborately built and have mediocre decorations. The funerary regalias used to bury the rulers of these royal lines were often usurped from the previous burial sites of older pharaonic complexes. Gold was scarce, and silver became the dominant metal used.
The Twenty-third Dynasty (828-712 b. c.e.) and Twenty-fourth Dynasty were even less capable of restoring artistic horizons in the nation. No monuments of note resulted from these rulers, who governed limited areas and were contemporaries. They barely maintained existing structures and did not advance the artistic endeavors to a notable level.
THE LATE PERIOD (712-332 B. C.E.)
The artistic horizons of Egypt would be revived by the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (712-657 b. c.e.), whose rulers came from Napata at the fourth cataract of the Nile in Nubia (modern Sudan). Their own cultural advances at Napata and other sites in Nubia were based on the cultic traditions of ancient Egypt. They moved north, in fact, to restore the old ways to Egypt and imprint realism and a new vitality on old forms.
ART
The Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 b. c.e.), once again composed of native Egyptians, despite its brevity, continued the renaissance and added refinements and elegance. This royal line left a deep impression in the land and restored the artistic vision.
The Twenty-sixth Dynasty rulers used large-scale bronze commemoratives, many inlaid. The jewelry of the period was finely done and furniture was high level in design and construction. The tomb of Queen takhat (3), the consort of psammetichus ii (595-589 b. c.e.), discovered at Tell Atrib, contained many articles of exquisite beauty, including golden sandals. The portrait of a priest of the era, called “the Green Head,” has fine details and charm. The athribis Treasure, which dates to this dynasty, contained golden sheets belonging to amasis (r. 570-526 b. c.e.). The surviving architectural innovation of this time is associated with the high mounds of sand, supported by bricks that formed the funerary structures of the age. No significant monuments arose, however, as Egypt was engaged in regional wars that drained resources and led to an invasion by the persians.
ARCHITECTURE
The temple of mendes, built in this dynastic era, and the additions made at Karnak, the temple complex in Thebes, and at Medinet Habu demonstrate the revival of art and architecture.
The Persians, led by cambyses (r. 525-522 b. c.e.), ruled Egypt as the Twenty-seventh Dynasty (525-404 b. c.e.). While recorded by contemporary Egyptians as a royal line that was cruel, even insane and criminal in some instances, the Persians erected a temple to Amun at KHARGA OASIS.
The final renaissance of architecture before the Ptolemaic Period came in the Thirtieth Dynasty The rulers of this royal line revived the Saite form and engaged in massive building projects, led by nectanebo i (r. 380-362 b. c.e.). All of the arts of Egypt were revived in his reign. Nectanebo i built in Philae, Karnak, Bubastis, Dendereh, and throughout the Delta. He also added an avenue of finely carved sphinxes at Luxor. in Dendereh he erected a mammisi, or birth house. Much of the architectural work accomplished in this dynastic era reflected the growing Greek presence in Egypt, but the traditional canon was respected and used in reliefs and portraits.
THE PTOLEMAIC PERIOD (332-30 B. C.E.)
Art
Ptolemaic artists continued the Egyptian styles but added fluidity and Hellenic influences in statuary, jewelry, and crafts. In Alexandria, such art was transformed into
World History
