This enlightenment involved not only the rapid entrenchment of writing based on the Chinese script and the construction of palace capitals on the Sui model, but, more significantly, the adoption of buddhism. The struggle over the succession leading in 592 to the enthronement of Empress Suiko also divided the protagonists on the basis of their preferred religion, as Soga no Imako and Prince Shotoku favored the new buddhism. Buddhist monks were then imbued with the charisma of divination and miracle working, and both men vowed that if successful they would promote the monks to the full. True to their promise, they had massive new temples constructed, employing immigrant craftspeople who included carpenters, painters, and ceramic workers, who were responsible for the manufacture of roof tiles. Soga sponsored the construction of Asuka, the new capital in the southern Nara Basin, of the asuka-dera temple; Shotoku was responsible for the shitenno-ji temple in Osaka. Both broke new ground in the size and splendor of religious structures in Japan, although neither temple has survived to the present day. The former was badly damaged by fire in 1196, and the latter was destroyed by bombing during the Second World War and now exists only in the form of a concrete replica of the original.
Buddhism under royal patronage, particularly at the hands of Prince Shotoku, rapidly spread, and it is recorded that nobles vied with one another to construct temples. Their foundation saw the deposit of horse-riding equipment and gold and silver ornaments recalling the mortuary offerings made in the kofun and indeed continuing the tradition. A census taken in 623 recorded that by that year there were 46 temples, staffed by 816 monks and 569 nuns.
Contributions of Korea in Religion and Society
It is important to stress the role played by Korean immigrants in the Asuka enlightenment. Korean priests were prominent among the 816 monks recorded in 623, Korean horse gear in Japan supports the widespread evidence for armored cavalry of the period with Korean influence, and similar currents can be seen in the architecture of the grand new temples and burial goods found in elite tombs. At the same time, the enlightenment saw the establishment of imperially appointed ranks based on merit and ability. There were 12 ranks, identified on the basis of the color of feathers worn in a purple silk hat embellished with gold and silver. The role of Confucian ethics is seen in the titles, beginning at the top rank with the title “greater virtue” and descending through such titles as “greater propriety” and “greater justice” to the lowest of all, “lesser knowledge.” These ranks of state officials replaced the former system of hereditary access to positions of influence. The 17 injunctions, said to have been formulated in 604 by Prince Shotoku, although this has been questioned, confirm a Confucian approach integrated with complete deference to the emperor’s wishes. They range from the requirement that officials always obey the emperor, to an order not to disturb farmers at critical times of the agricultural round, such as planting and harvest. officials are enjoined not to be jealous, to confer with others before making important decisions, and to work long hours.
Taika Reforms
Interest in Chinese unification, art, and culture was magnified through diplomatic missions sent by the empress to the Sui court, a practice that became more accentuated after the fall of the Sui and the establishment of the Tang dynasty under Emperor Gaozu in 618. However, there followed a period of factional politics in the court, because Prince Shotoku died in 622, and the empress Suiko died six years later. The obvious choice as successor was Shotoku’s son, Prince Yamashiro, but his succession was opposed by the strong Soga clan. First the ineffectual emperor Jomei acceded, to be followed by his wife as empress Kogyokui (r. 642-45). Bloodletting followed. Yamashiro and his family were eliminated at the hands of Iruka, a leading member of the powerful Soga clan. In 645 iruka himself was murdered in the royal audience hall, setting the stage for the appointment of Emperor Kotoku (r. 645-54). One of his first actions was to move the capital from Asuka to Naniwa on the coast, followed on New Year’s Day, 646, by a series of major reforms that provided greater powers for the emperor and improvements to the tax system. These, known as the taika reforms, reveal recurrent features in the development of early states.
There was a census, and the tax on agricultural production was set at 3 percent of the yield. In addition,
Cloth to be given in tax was set against the area of land owned. Other goods required included horses (one horse per 100 households), labor for work on government projects, weaponry and armor, and even an attractive woman to be sent to the court. The new edicts also prescribed the size of tombs relative to the rank of the deceased. Was this order followed? It seems so, given the dimensions of the burial mounds of the period measured by archaeologists. These reforms have been seen by some scholars as the turning point that saw Yamato develop into a full-fledged state on the Chinese model. Others, however, deny their relevance, claiming that the reforms were later. This issue was illuminated by the discovery in 1975 at the site of the Itabuki palace of a MOKKAN, or wooden tablet, that stated simply, “Shiragabe 50 households.” Since the Taika Reforms specified that each administrative village was to include 50 households, this gave new documentary proof of the 646 date.
THREATS FROM KOREA AND CHINA
The defeat of first Paekche in 663, Yamato’s ally in Korea, and then Koguryo in 668 by the combined forces of Tang China and Shilla had a profound effect on Yamato. Predatory enemies, in the form of either the might of the Tang empire or a unified Korea under Shilla domination, were now at Japan’s doorstep. Defensive forts were constructed from Kyushu east into the heartland of Yamato. The capital at Asuka was abandoned in favor of the more easily defended position at Otsu. The strength of the ruling dynasty under the emperors tenji (668-71) and temmu (673-86) increased at the expense of the powerful clans. The investment in charismatic authority of the emperor was manifested in the construction of magnificent palace-capitals along Tang lines, such as fujiwara and in 710 the capital of Nara, also known as heijo-kyo. These were associated with a series of edicts that established the legal basis of the imperial rule. The 14-year reign of Emperor Temmu saw the construction of the Kiyomihara Palace at Asuka, a portent of the royal capitals to come, and increased central control over the armed forces. Historical records charting the godly origins of the royal dynasty were designed as a legitimizing force, and Buddhism was encouraged as the state religion. The sutras favoring royal rule were widely read. Temmu was succeeded by his widow, the empress JITO, who resolved to construct a great new capital at fujiwara on the Nara Plain, a city she was able to occupy in 694, which required huge resources of materials and labor to construct. it was designed along the lines of the continental cities on a grid layout, with the royal palace at its heart. In 702 the Taiho Code, a set of laws cementing the aristocratically based Fujiwara regime, was issued. it is important to note that the succession to the throne was not restricted to the male line, and the empress was succeeded by her sister, Genmei. One of the new ruler’s first decisions was to abandon Fujiwara after less than a decade of occupancy and move the capital to
Heijo-kyo, only 20 kilometers (12 mi.) to the north. This move established the Nara state, although the transition from Yamato was seamless and involved the same dynasty.
Further reading: Barnes, G. Prehistoric Yamato: Archaeology of the First Japanese State. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988; Brown, D. M. The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 1993; Pearson, R. J., ed. Windows on the Japanese Past: Studies in Archaeology and Prehistory. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1986; Totman, C. A History of Japan. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Yan The state of Yan was located in northeastern China, centered in the vicinity of modern Beijing. it occupied a strategic location between the sea and the Tai-hang mountain range, protecting the central plains from any attack from a northeastern direction. Yan, as had several other states that came to the fore politically during the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 B. C.E.), had its origins in the wars of succession that followed the death of King wu, the first ruler of the western zhou dynasty. The succession should have passed to his oldest son, Song, who under the name Cheng was to rule from about 1042 until 1006 b. c.e. However, a younger brother of King Wu, Zhou Gong Dan, declared himself regent instead, on the grounds that Song was too young to rule alone. This fomented a civil war between the forces of Zhou Gong Dan and Cheng on the one hand and those of Dan’s brothers on the other. Zhou Gong Dan fought successful campaigns to the east of the capital and greatly expanded the area under Zhou control. in time-honored tradition, rulers for the new territories were found among the loyal members of the ruling lineage, and Shao Gong Shi, a half-brother of Zhou Gong, was granted the fief that developed into the state of Yan. While under the Western Zhou, such fiefs owed fealty to the emperor, they assumed independence with the end of the Western Zhou dynasty in 771 b. c.e. Yan thus became an independent state during the eastern zhou dynasty. It was the most northerly of these states, and one of the smallest, but the splendor of the bronzes found in the cemeteries of Fang-shan and Liulihe shows beyond any doubt the wealth based on agriculture and trade of the ruling Zhou elite. Despite surviving through judicious alliances, Yan finally fell in the early third century b. c.e. to a powerful alliance led by the rival state of QI.
The Huang (Yellow) River formerly flowed through Yan, and it would have been well positioned for trade and agricultural production. Excavations at Fangshan near Beijing have uncovered rich royal graves that include multiple chariots and horses as well as fine bronze vessels. Some of the vessels bear inscriptions that name individuals previously documented only in literary sources such as the Shang Shu, including tai bao, a title given to Shao Gong Shi. The title yan hou is also found on bronzes unearthed at the necropolis of Fangshan, and further chariot burials have been found at Liulihe. The old literary name for Beijing was Yanjing, meaning the “Yan capital,” and the outstanding bronzes found there tend to sustain this interpretation.
Wuyang or Xiadu, a secondary capital of Yan, was founded by King Zhaowang in the late warring states PERIOD (475-221 B. C.E.). It has been investigated archaeologically and includes large walled areas with a canal flowing north to south through the center, thus linking the northern and central branches of the Yi River. Both walled areas cover 3,200 hectares (8,000 acres), the eastern or inner city being further divided by an east-west wall. As did virtually all Warring States capitals, Xiadu incorporated specialized workshop areas. One was dedicated to the casting of bronze mirrors, a product that proliferated during the last few centuries of Eastern Zhou. Another was dedicated to iron casting and was perhaps responsible for the well-known iron helmet of Xiadu, which was made of separate plates that could be joined. Yet another area was given over to the casting of coins, while there were also bone and ceramic workshops. A hoard of ge halberds, most of which bear the inscribed names of Yan state lords, has been recovered. In the northwestern section of the inner city there is an extensive cemetery One of the excavated graves included seven ceramic ding tripods and belonged to a minister.
The records dating to the Warring states period provide figures for the size of the armies that took part in the internecine strife of the period. Yan is at the bottom of the league table with only 100,000 infantry, a tenth of that estimated for the state of qin. The same relative weakness is found in the number of chariots and cavalry and perhaps explains the ultimate demise of the state.
Yangputou Yangputou is a major site of the dian chief-DOM of Yunnan province, southern China. Dian was one of the many such chiefdoms spread across southern China that flourished during the later warring states period (475-221 B. C.E.) and the early Western HAN dynasty (206 B. C.E.-9 C. E.). With the imperial policy of the Han, however, it was to absorbed as a commandery, or province, of the Han in the second century B. C.E. Two major sites reveal through the wealth of their grave offerings the presence of an aristocratic elite: shizhaishan and lijiashan. Yangputou was excavated on a grand scale in 1998-99, when a total of 495 burials was uncovered in an area of just over a hectare (2.5 acres). Excavation was undertaken ahead of a construction program that covered the site. The most important result has been the documentation of social divisions in the cemetery; there were four large and opulent graves, 23 of considerable wealth, and the balance with few grave goods. The rich mortuary offerings included items of gold, jade, agate, and lacquer. Swords were retained in gold scabbards, and lacquer bowls of probable Sichuan origin were uncovered. Unique features of this site were the human-like phalluses of antler or lacquered wood incorporating carvings of animals, such as a rabbit, bird, or deer head. The graves were lined with wood, and some of the human skeletons have survived to provide a rare opportunity of examining the health and demographic character of a Dian community in which local leaders were apparently identified by their particularly fine mortuary rituals and offerings.
Yangshao culture Yangshao is the name given to the many Neolithic cultures of north China. The sites date between approximately 5100 and 3000 B. C.E. and concentrate in the loess uplands traversed by the Huang (Yellow) River and its tributaries. Loess is a fine windblown dust that was deposited in vast quantities during the last Ice Age. Soft and easily worked, it encouraged the cultivation of millet. Typical sites, such as Banbo, were large villages with an open area in the middle and circular houses. The cemeteries were placed outside a surrounding ditch, and individuals were interred with animal bones and fine painted pottery vessels, which are the hallmark of this culture. There are many regional subdivisions; the most interesting from the point of view of early civilization are those to the northwest of the area of distribution in the province of Gansu. Here some late Yangshao sites of the variants known as Majiayao, Ban-shan, and Machang have yielded the earliest evidence for a knowledge of bronze casting. Since bronzes were such a vital aspect of the ritual life of early Chinese states, the origins and early history of metallurgy in China are issues of considerable importance. At first sight, it might seem surprising that the earliest bronzes were found in remote Gansu. However, this part of China is strategically placed to give access to the tarim basin, the Dzungarian Gates, and so across the steppes to the West. in later periods this came to be known as the silk road, linking imperial China, india, Persia, and Rome. Recent research has shown that a knowledge of bronze working, which originated in the Near East, spread in an easterly direction before it appeared in China. As does that of later cultural phenomena that seem to have been transmitted in a similar fashion, including use of the chariot and knowledge of iron working, the origin of Chinese copper and tin metallurgy appears to lie in the West.
The village communities of the Majiayao phase of the Yangshao culture, which is dated in the vicinity of 3000 B. C.E., typically include houses sunk into the soft loess soil as a protection against the bitter winter cold. The inhabitants cultivated millet and maintained domestic stock. They fashioned and kiln-fired pottery vessels and used polished stone tools. The longevity of these stable villages led to the formation of large inhumation cemeteries. Their millet was stored in underground pits for winter consumption, and in one of these pits at the site of Linjia a bronze knife that was between 6 and 10 percent tin was found. It was cast in a double mold and represents one of the earliest bronzes, if not the earliest, from China. Other pits at the same site have yielded fragments of bronze as well, but the knife is the only actual bronze artifact from this extensively excavated site. It presents a problem of interpretation in that major excavations at sites of the succeeding Banshan phase (2700-2350 b. c.e.) of the late Yangshao in this region have revealed no other bronzes. This lack is particularly notable at Liuwan, where more than 1,000 graves have been opened. Of these, 257 belong to the Ban-shan phase, and 872 to the succeeding Machang phase (2400-2000 b. c.e.). Yet no items of bronze were recovered.
Toward the end of the Yangshao culture in the central plains, cultural changes that quickened in the succeeding LONGSHAN CULTURE took place; particularly important were the first rammed-earth walls encircling settlements such as Xishan, near Zhengzhou.
Yantie Lun The Yantie Lun (Discourse on Salt and Iron), is an important HAN dynasty text that explores the rationale for state control over vital industries. The discourse touched on many themes that continue to dominate economic policy, such as the relative advantages of state control against private enterprise. Its background involved the fiscal policies of the emperor WUDI (157-87 b. c.e.). Wudi, the “Martial Emperor,” had embarked on a major policy of imperial expansion. His armies had taken large new tracts of land in the northwest, which extended the empire to the Jade Gates and dunhuang. This provided immediate access to the lucrative silk road but at the cost of training and equipping large numbers of soldiers and extending the GREAT WALL many kilometers to the west. To the northeast he took the land up to and including the Korean Peninsula, creating new administrative provinces, or commanderies. He also expanded his southern frontiers to include many of the warlike tribes of Yue from modern Yunnan east to Guangdong and Vietnam. This policy was very expensive in labor and materials, and he had to seek many new and unpopular means of raising revenue. These included the confiscation of privately owned land for the most specious reasons, the sale of titles, and the seizure of private assets and businesses concerned with trade in salt, iron, liquor, and the minting of currency. In essence, this policy was a reversion to the legalism of the qin dynasty, whereby a policy was justified if it enhanced the power of the state. In 81 B. C.E., soon after the death of Wudi and at a time of financial duress, a debate took place between legalists and Con-fucian followers, and the proceedings are known as the Discourse on Salt and Iron. The principal purpose of this meeting, called by the government ministers, was to inquire into popular discontent about the effects of this policy.
The arguments were tossed to and fro between the ministers (modernists) and Confucian scholars (reformists), at times descending to personal abuse and ridicule. One minister said of the scholars: “See them. . . in their coarse gowns and worn shoes they walk gravely along, sunk in meditation as though they have lost something. These are not men who can do great deeds and win fame.” The debate, however, was lively The ministers described the plight at the frontier, where brave troops had to withstand the attacks of the xiongnu, and the benefits of the new trade along the Silk Road that imported a whole range of new goods: precious stones, furs, and new ideas. To this, the Confucians responded derisively that Han had no business in Central Asia; they should concentrate on the homeland. As for the trade, the exotic imports benefited only the rich, for poor people who actually produced the fine silks for export could not afford such luxuries. The Confucians stressed the distortions that followed state monopolies, in which goods were bought cheaply and retained until prices soared. Then they could be sold at a huge profit, encouraging racketeering. This likewise diminished the vital importance of agriculture and tempted farmers into quick profits through trade. But the modernists were insistent. State control over iron, for example, meant that high-quality iron implements could be manufactured and made widely available, thus improving agricultural efficiency rather than letting any profits remain in private hands.
See also confucius.
Yaoshan Yaoshan is located between the southern edge of Lake Taihu and the Chang (Yangtze) River in eastern China. It is a necropolis of the liangzhu culture, dated 3200-2000 B. C.E. The site was a raised mound almost 100 meters (330 ft.) long, within which were at least 12 tombs laid out in two rows. This mound was surrounded by a moat two meters wide and a u-shaped platform. There is no evidence for occupation. Such ritual-mortuary sites are found at other Liangzhu sites such as sidun and Fanshan and emphasize the high degree of social gradation that existed in the Liangzhu culture, where many ordinary graves lack the rich grave goods and double wooden coffins with space for the placement of mortuary offerings found at Yaoshan. A typical grave gift was a jade cong commonly ornamented with monster’s mark or face, in the form of bulging eyes, a broad nose, and tusklike teeth.
As a result of rice cultivation that employed irrigation and plowing for added efficiency, the people of Liangzhu had fine craft workshops for the production of jade, lacquerware, and ceramics. This is seen in the offerings placed with the dead at Yaoshan, including jade cong. The term cong was coined during the eastern zhou DYNASTY (770-221 b. c.e.) to describe these unusual artifacts. The cong has a circular interior in a square decorated exterior. Many were found surrounding the skeleton of a young man at the related site of Sidun, giving rise to the theory that they were used in shamanistic rituals. Such monster images are also found on a series of trapezoidal jade plaques from Yaoshan. One example shows the monster flanked by men wearing feathered headdresses. Another such plaque was found associated with jade beads to form a necklace. These jades were made in the Liangzhu cultural area, although the location of the source of the jade itself is not known.
Yarang Yarang is a moated settlement in the valley of the Pattani River on the east coast of peninsular Thailand. Excavations have revealed a long sequence of occupancy. During the early phase there was a small moated settlement. This was expanded during the eighth to 10 th centuries c. e. and involved the construction of several temples. The site was involved in widespread trade and was under the control of the kingdom of SRIVIJAYA.
Yashodharapura King yashovarmani (r. 889-910) founded his new city of Yashodharapura around his state temple on the top of a hill known as Phnom bakheng in cambodia. if the moat visible to the southwest of the Bakheng formerly enclosed his city, then Yashodharapura would have been very large indeed. This has long been regarded as likely. However, it has now been shown that this enigmatic “moat” was beyond reasonable doubt a 12th-century construction designed to link the city of ANGKOR with a canal leading to the great lake. Under these circumstances, although Victor Goloubew in 1933 identified the Bakheng as the center of Yashodharapura first on the basis of air photographs and then on investigation of archaeological features on the ground, there is no certainty as to its size or limits. There is no doubt that he discovered faint traces of roads flanked by water basins, while further excavations have uncovered roof tiles, suggesting that elite residences were located around the central temple. Given the lack of walls or moats, christophe Pottier has suggested that this and all later Angkorian cities had an open plan until the construction of ANGKOR THOM under JAYAVARMAN VII.
World History
