Prudentius (Aurelius Prudentius Clemens)

Born in Spain, at the site of modern Saragossa, he studied law and was both a lawyer and government official. Despite a high position of respect in Rome, he spent his last years devoted to composition. Among the many works of Prudentius were Apotheosis; Peristephanon, in praise of martyrs; Psychomachia, a view of spiritual struggles between good and evil; Cathemerinon, hymns for each day; and the famous contra Symmachum, a polemic composed to refute the speech delivered by the pagan SYMMACHUS during the debates and struggles over the return of the pagan Altar of Victory to the Senate.

Ptolemais Name given to numerous towns in Africa and Egypt that were founded under Ptolemaic influence during that dynasty’s three-century rule of the Egyptian kingdom. Two cities named Ptolemais were especially interesting, one in Africa and the other in Cyrenaica. Ptolemais in Egypt was situated along the Nile, south of the Faiyum and north of Thebes. As it was originally a Greek colony, its inhabitants steadfastly retained their Greek heritage and lifestyle. This was important to Emperor Hadrian, who, in 130 C. E., founded the city of ANTINOPOLIS just above Ptolemais. Many residents of the new community were drawn from Ptolemais, specifically because of their Hellenic cultural ties. Ptolemais in Cyre-naica was also a Greek colony, established probably in the third century B. C.E. It was positioned to the east of Cyrene along the coast and was probably very wealthy. The city possessed theaters, an odeon, an amphitheater and villas of exceptional beauty Water was supplied through ingenious cisterns and decorated underground vaults.

Ptolemy (d. 40 c. e.) King of Mauretania The son of King JUBA II and ruler of Mauretania from 23 to 40 C. E., Ptolemy was related to the imperial family though his mother, Cleopatra Selene, the daughter of Marc Antony. During the final years of Juba’s reign, Ptolemy assumed greater importance to his kingdom and was thus well prepared to fulfill the duties of his office. His relations with Rome were always excellent. After aiding in the destruction of the brigand Tacfarinas he was declared a “Friend of Rome,” receiving from the Senate as well a scepter and a beautiful purple robe. In 40, however, he was summoned to Rome by Gaius Caligula and put to death. Various sources ascribed this murder to his wealth, his robe or to some imaginary offense. Mauretania was quickly seized by Rome.

Ptolemy, Claudius (f. second century c. e.) Astronomer, mathematician, and geographer

Claudius Ptolemy, or Ptolemaeus, lived in Alexandria when the city was still the heart of the Roman Empire’s scientific life. Little survived to detail his life, except that he was Egyptian; only his monumental works stand as his personal legacy. Ptolemy’s most famous treatise was his mammoth study on astronomy, the Almagest. Written in 13 books, it covered the entire extent of knowledge of the heavens, relying upon numerous ancient authorities, such as Menelaus and Hipparchus. Its mathematical computations were extensive. So impressive was the Almagest that it served as the accepted and definitive effort on the subject for the next millennium, even in the eras of Islam and the Byzantines. When combined with his many other astronomical studies, the Almagest provided a thorough presentation of the stars, geometrical systems, orbits, and constellations. Ptolemy thus knew something about virtually every science. One of his branches of expertise, geography, resulted in a detailed (but now inaccurate) geographical guide to the ancient world. All of his writings, however, were clear, methodical and important from a historical perspective in their preservation of sources from antiquity.

See also ASTROLOGY; MATHEMATICS.

Ptolemy XII Auletes (d. 51 b. c.e.) King of Egypt from 80 to 51 b. c.e.

Called officially Neos Dionysos, but popularly known as Auletes, he was the illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX Lath-yrus, who died in 80 without any designated heir. With the support of the Alexandrian political parties, young Ptolemy was elevated to the throne, taking the name Ptolemy XII (because Ptolemies X and XI had reigned for brief periods when his father was off the throne, regaining it a few years before he died in 80). This accession took place without the blessings of the powerful Roman statesman Sulla, engendering the first thoughts of a possible Roman seizure of Egypt. This threat hung over Ptolemy’s rule for many years and was partially resolved in 59 B. C.E. Through the help of Pompey and Julius Caesar, Ptolemy was given full status as the recognized head of Egypt by the Roman Senate in 59. This recognition came at the price of 6,000 talents of gold, and in order to pay vast bribes Ptolemy had to apply a ruthless taxation program to his own easily enflamed subjects. In 58, he fled Egypt, journeying to Rome to demand help in recovering the throne.

Pompey pressed the Senate to send troops to Egypt to win back the country, and had full approval for the consul Lentulus Spinther to march. Unfortunately, the SIBYLLINE BOOKS declared such a venture untimely. It was not until 55 that Ptolemy could find a means of returning home. The Roman official Aulus gabinius was offered 10,000 talents to forget the cause of Mithridates in Parthia. Gabinius accepted and reinstated Ptolemy but was then fined the money he received, a punishment for taking such a treasure. Ptolemy remained in Egypt until his death in 51. His children were Cleopatra, arsinoe,

PTOLEMY XIII, and PTOLEMY XIV.

Ptolemy XIII (d. 47 B. C.E.) King of Egypt, brother of Cleopatra, and son of King Ptolemy XII Auletes Ptolemy XIII tried but failed to win the throne of his country from Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. In 51 B. C.E. , Ptolemy XII died, leaving his heirs Cleopatra and Ptolemy, who was probably barely 10 years old. Although they were to rule Egypt together, a group of ambitious advisers surrounded both. The result was a tense political struggle for power within the palace. By 48, Cleopatra had been ousted from Alexandria thro u gh the maneuverings of Ptolemy’s cunning counselors, such as POTHINUS and Theodotus. As she refused to give up so easily, the queen organized an army. Egypt stood on the verge of civil war when Pompey arrived on Septem b er 28, 48 B. C.E. Pompey the Great had just lost the battle of Pharsalus and had fled to Egypt with Caesar in hot pursuit. Ptolemy’s adviser recommended murd e ring Pompey as an act of goodwill to Caesar. While the removal of such a foe was politically advantageous to C aesar, the shameful manner of his death virtually condemned Ptolemy. By the time Cleopatra became Caesar’s l over, all of Alexandria was up in arms, and the Roman dictator was besieged. Sensing that it was to his advantage to send Ptolemy away from the palace, Caesar eventually allowed him to depart. Ptolemy joined his arm y, engaged at the time in trying to stop the advance of Mithridates of Pergamum. The young king showed flashes of real military talent, but he was no match for Caesar, who faced him in the battle of the NILE in Febru-a ry of 47. There the Egyptians were routed, and Ptolemy fell in the fray

Ptolemy XIV (d. 43 B. C.E.) King of Egypt The youngest son of King ptolemy xii auletes of Egypt, and the brother of Cleopatra and ptolemy xiii, Ptolemy was placed on the throne with Cleopatra by Julius Caesar, in 47 B. C.E. Officially he was to be her consort, but as he was only 10 or 12 years old at the time, she was the true power in the land. He was presumably murdered by her sometime after Caesar’s assassination, probably in 43 B. C.E.

Pulcheria, Aelia (399-453 c. e.) Augusta from 414 to 453 and the sister of Emperor Theodosius II Pulcheria ran the Eastern Empire as regent for her brother, while earning a reputation for saintliness that resulted in her canonization. She was the daughter of Emperor Arcadius, growing up in Constantinople and living as the elder sister of the imperial heir. When Arcadius died in 408, Theodosius succeeded to the throne and both lived for the next six years under the fair administration of the Praetorian Prefect anthemius. In 414, however, Anthemius was removed from his post. On July 4, 414, Pulcheria was proclaimed Augusta, taking control over virtually all aspects of her brother’s education. She also introduced strict Christian practices into the court, eventually convincing her brother to condemn Nestorian-ism.

Theodosius married the formidable eudocia in 421; with her elevation to the rank of Augusta in 423, she was on equal terms with Pulcheria. The next years were spent amidst intrigues as Eudocia quietly battled Pulcheria for control of the palace, and the ambitious eunuch and chamberlain, Chrysaphius zstommas, sowed discontent between them. Pulcheria refused to take the bait of open war, retiring to a private life in the Palace of the Heb-domon in Constantinople. Eudocia was subsequently forced out of the Eastern capital, going to Jerusalem and leaving zstommas to reign supreme during th 440s.

By the year 450, the officers of the army had risen up and defeated the eunuch. Pulcheria emerged once more as the main influence with Theodosius. He died in July of that year, leaving no appointed heir, although he was leaning toward the reliable soldier, marcian. To ensure a smooth transition of power, Pulcheria married Marcian. She died a virgin in 453, having left a lasting mark on the East and on Christianity, with her support of orthodoxy and with her leadership at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

Pulchra, Claudia (d. 26 c. e.) A cousin of Agrippina the Elder

Claudia’s persecution in 26 C. E. marked the beginning of the end for Agrippina. Charged with adultery and the attempted assassination of Tiberius with poisons and incantations, she was condemned through the skillful oratory of Domitius afer. Agrippina’s angry response against Tiberius for allowing the trial to proceed only made Agrippina’s position more dangerous.

Pupienus (d. 238 c. e.) Senator and coemperor (with Balbinus) in 238 c. e.

Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus was possibly of low birth, although the details of his life are rendered unclear by the wholly unreliable account in the Historia Augusta (see SCRIPTORES HISTORIAE augustae). According to the historian Herodian, Pupienus held numerous posts as governor, including that of Germania Inferior and Asia. When the Senate determined to be rid of Emperor Maximinus I Thrax, a committee of 20 was organized to prepare Italy for invasion. Both Gordians, whom the Senate had supported, were killed in 238, and Pupienus was raised with balbinus to the throne.

Even though the two colleagues were to be complete equals, Pupienus was the less popular of the two. To ensure their acceptance, the grandson of gordian i, Gordian III, was made Caesar. This done, Pupienus set out to northern Italy, where he collected an army. It proved to be unnecessary, for Maximinus was slain by his own men. Returning to Rome with a German bodyguard, Pupienus infuriated both Balbinus and the praetorian guard with his ovation. As relations between the two rulers deteriorated, the Praetorians plotted their deaths, fearing that they were about to be replaced by the Germans. They thus stormed the palace, kidnapped the two emperors and murdered them in the castra praetoria.

Puteoli One of the major ports in Italy, on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast of Campania; a gateway for commerce from Alexandria and from Spain and much of the western Mediterranean. Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was founded by the Greeks, who were living in nearby Cumae at the time (c. 521 b. c.e.) and named their new community Dicaearchia. Popular usage turned it into Puteoli, probably from its many wells (puteus, well). Roman occupation came in 194 b. c.e. with colonists. Further efforts at colonization were made by Augustus, Nero, and Vespasian, each granting some new privileges. under Nero, Puteoli was known officially as Colonia Claudia Augusta Nero-nensis. Such honors could not disguise the reality that from the reign of Claudius the port, despite its excellent harbor, was eclipsed as the commercial entry into Rome by OSTIA. As the residents of Puteoli watched their economic livelihood dry up in favor of Ostia and coupled with the growing independence of foreign markets, internal feuding between the populace and the magistrates erupted. In 58 C. E., riots and threats of arson brought the appointment of Gaius Cassius. He was replaced by the SCRIBONII BROTHERS who arrived with a cohort of the Praetorian Guard, striking suitable terror into the populace. Puteoli was sacked in 410 by Alaric and in 455 by Geiseric and again by the Huns in 545.

Pylades (fl. first century b. c.e.) Actor Pylades was reportedly very old in 2 B. C.E. He quarreled with the other notable performer, Bathyllus, but was exiled from Rome and Italy for pointing out, with a middle finger, a spectator who had hissed at him. In 18 b. c.e. he was allowed to return to Rome. He commented to the emperor when rebuked for his feud with Bathyllus that: “It is fortunate for you, Caesar, that the people should devote their time to us.” Pylades was also the name of two pantomime actors, one a favorite of Emperor Trajan (98-117 C. E.) and the other popular in the reign of Perti-nax (193 C. E.).

Quadi A Germanic tribe of Suebi racial stock, situated in the area of the Main River late in the first century b. c.e. Moving into southeastern Germ any, they came into contact with the MARCOMANNI, IAZYGES, and other minor peoples, such as the Osi. Subsequently, they developed close ties with both the Marcomanni and Iazyges while establishing themselves as a powerful tribal state. Under their chief, Vannius, the Quadi exercised considerable influence over the western Danubian frontier in the first half of the first century c. e. Around 50 c. e. , howe ver, Vanni us and the Quadi were assailed by a barbarian confederation of the HERMUNDURI, Lugii and others. Vannius fell in battle while countering two usurpers, his nephews Vangi s and Sido. They broke apart the Quadi, as large elements of Vanni us’s supporters fled to the Romans and were settled in PAN N ON ia. H e n c e fo rththe Quadi displayed hostility toward Rome. A war was fought with Empero r DOMITIAN, and the Quadi were a leading force in the mar-COMANNIC WARS in the second century Marcus aurelius inflicted a terrible defeat upon them in 174. By the end of the fourth century, the Quadi were part of the other Germanic states on the march into the Roman Empire. They probably traveled with the van dals into Spain.

Quadratus, Asinius (fl. early third century c. e.) Senator and historian

Probably proconsul of Achaea, Quadratus authored a History of Rome in 15 books and a work on the Parthians, both in Greek.

Q uuestiones The main criminal courts of the Republic, an institution that lasted until the third century c. e. Acco rding to early custom, crimes against the state were tried by a magistrate or, under certain circumstances, a special board summoned to handle the matter. This commission, called a quaestio, was not permanent. In 149 b. c.e. , a major change was made as the term quaestio per-petua was now applied to the committee. At first presid ing over civil cases, the quaestio assumed the bulk of criminal cases. Formed of senators, its jurors were non-senatorial, normally of the Equestrian class (equites). Individual quaesti ones w e re established to oversee various criminal jurisdictions, including veneficia (witchcraft and poisoning), MAIESTAS ( treason), and peculatus ( c o rruption). As part of the re o rganization of the entire governmental system, AUGUSTUS retained the quaestiones, adding yet another court for crimes of adultery While the quaesti ones continued to operate as they had during the Republic, the trend from the first century c. e. was to take away some of the functions of law and place them elsewhere. The Senate itself assumed some of the duties of the quaesti ones as did the central imperial administration. More important was the creation of widened jurisdictions in law for the prefect OF the city and the prefect of the praetorian GUARD, especially with regard to the lower classes of Rome. Thequaes tiones lost much of their prestige.

See also law; praetor.

Quaes tor The lowest ranking magistrate in the CURSUS honorum and the first position taken by all candidates embarking upon a senatorial care e r. Quaestors were probably a creation of the Roman kings, becoming institutionalized during the Republic. Their numbers in creased with the rise of Rome as an imperial power, until the dictator Sulla fixed their number at 20 with a minimum age of 30. From the earliest days of the quaestorships these officials were closely connected with finances in Rome and in the provinces. The quaestores urbani exercised their authority within the walls of Rome, attached to the aerarium until their position was usurped by new officers in the imperial system. Q u a e-stores provinciales served the proconsuls in senatorial p rovinces. They managed the finances of the provin ci al treasury, acted as deputies to the proconsul and often assumed the pro c onsu I’s duties when he was away. Quaestors were synonymous with the procurators in imperial domains. Upon completion of a quaestorship, the newly declared ex-quaestor was promoted te gul arly to the SENATE and was eligible for other magistracies.

Quaestor sacri palati Quaestor of the sacred palace, the chief legal minister. Appointed first during the reforms of Constantine the great in the fourth century, the quaestor sacri palati had the task of drafting laws and writing the replies of the imperial administration to legal petitions. He worked normally with the scrinii for secretarial assistance.

Quietus, Lusius (d. 117 c. e.) Chieftain of the Moors under Emperor Trajan

A noted cavalry commander and one of the Roman Empire’s most ruthless officials, Lusius Quietus was originally captain of a native cavalry detachment in the early second century c. e. Condemned for excessive behavior, he was pardoned by Trajan and put to use in the Dacian Wars; he also served the emperor in a series of operations in the Parthian Wars. The Moor captured nisibis before burning and sacking edessa in 116. Facing a massive Jewish uprising in Mesopotamia and elsewhere, Trajan charged the general with their suppression, which he accomplished mercilessly, assuming the governorship of Judaea. in 117 he held a consulship but the following year was put to death as part of the purge accompanying the accession of HADRIAN.

Quietus, Titus Fulvius Junius (d. 261 c. e.) Son of General Fulvius Macrianus and younger brother of the usurper Junius Macrianus

In 260 c. e., following the capture and death of Emperor VALERIAN at the hands of the Persians, Quietus was proclaimed emperor in the East with his brother. He remained in the Eastern provinces while his father and brother marched west to enforce their imperial claim. When both macrianus and his father were killed by the usurper aureolus in illyricum, Quietus was attacked at EMESA in 261 by odaenath, the ruler of palmyra, and was put to death.

Quinarius A species of Roman silver coinage, in value roughly one-half of the denarius. First coinage during the Republic, the quinarius was never issued in an organized fashion and mintings were not numerous.

See also coinage.

Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Literally, the 15 men

For performing the sacrifices, known also as the quindec-imviri; one of the main priestly colleges of Rome. The 15 quindecimviri were in charge of the sibylline books and thus exercised great influence on the decisions of the government. Later they monitored all foreign religions or cults that were allowed to function in Rome after permission had been granted by the sibylline Books. From the time of Julius Caesar they numbered 16.

See PRIESTHOODS.

Quintianus, Afranius (d. 65 c. e.) Senator and a member of the Pisonian Conspiracy against Nero in 65 c. e.

The historian tacitus wrote that Quintianus desired revenge upon Nero for lampooning his effeminate nature. When the plot was uncovered, Quintianus hoped to have his life spared by implicating the other conspirators, including his closest friends. The betrayals did little good, for he was executed.

Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus) (c. 34-100 c. e.) Highly respected writer and teacher Born in Calagurris (Calahorra), Spain, possibly the son of a rhetorician, Quintilian was educated, at least in part, in Rome, perhaps under Remmius palaemon and certainly under Domitius afer. After returning to Spain (c. 63), he was summoned by the Emperor galba back to Rome in 68, where he remained for many years. He prospered as a tutor, becoming the first recipient of a direct salary from the government, because of his rhetorical talents. in high favor with the Flavians, he also practiced as a lawyer and amassed vast wealth. He acted as instructor to Domitian’s two great-nephews, the designated heirs to the throne, as well as to PLINY THE YOUNGER. Among his works were De causis corruptae eloquentiae (On the Causes of the Corruption of Eloquence), declamations, a discussion of rhetoric and the famed Institutio Oratoria (The Education of the Orator). Composed in 96, a few years before his death, this large treatise outlined the training of a rhetorician in all of its details: early education, proper schooling, subject matter, style, and the nature of speaking. Book 10 was particularly important for its information on Greek and Latin writers. A stout defender of Latin, Quintilian listed the greatest rhetoricians of his time, with his critical commentary.

Quintilii brothers Dissenters during the reign of Emperor Commodus (177-192 c. e.)

They earned a reputation for their learning, martial abilities, and wealth. Sextus Quintilius Condianus and Sextus

Quintilius Valerius Maximus were inseparable, agreeing in 182 C. E. that Commodus was an appallingly bad emperor. Their dissensions reached the ears of palace courtiers and both were killed together. The son of Maximus reportedly escaped, traveling for years to avoid imperial assassins.

Quintillus, Marcus Aurelius Claudius (d. 270 c. e.) Brother of Emperor Claudius II Gothicus Named by Claudius to serve as commander in Italy. When Claudius died in 270, Quintillus served briefly as emperor. His reign, perhaps only a few months, was cut short by his death, possibly at the hands of his troops.

Quintus of Smyrna (fl. fourth century c. e.) Poet Quintus was known for his sequel to Homer’s Iliad, composed in 14 books.

Quirinal hill See hills of rome.

Quirinius, Publius Sulpicius (d. 21 c. e.) Consul in 12 B. C.E. and imperial official under Emperor Tiberius (ruled 14-37 c. e.)

Quirinius came from humble origins in Lanuvium and served in numerous provincial posts, including as proconsul of Crete and Cyrenaica, where he suppressed the Marmaridae, and perhaps as governor of Galatia and later of SYRIA, where he defeated the local Colician Homana-denses (a band of outlaws). Quirinius paid a flattering visit to Tiberius, in self-imposed exile on Rhodes, and became adviser to Gaius caesar in the East in 2 c. e. Appointed governor of Syria in 6 C. E., he was responsible for the census conducted in Judaea following the territory’s annexation. Quirinius married Aemilia lepida (around 2 c. e.) but later divorced her in proceedings that were so vicious that his reputation was ruined. Tiberius gave him a lavish funeral while lauding his career and devotion.

Quirinus Name given by the Romans to the deified Romulus. The title had a Sabine origin and was possibly derived from quiris or “spear.” It had associations with Mars, the god of war and the father of Romulus. As a divinity, Quirinus ranked as one of Rome’s most important patrons, along with Jupiter, Mars, and Juno. He had a temple and a festival, the Quirinalia, held on February 17 each year. A Flamen Quirinalis was in charge of all religious ceremonies pertaining to Quirinus.

See also gods and goddesses of rome; hills of

ROME.

Quirites General term meaning citizens of Rome. When applied to soldiers, as done by Caesar to his troops in 47 B. C.E., it assumed a derogatory sense, stripping them of their status as fighting men, calling them mere “civilians

Quodvultdeus (d. 453 c. e.) Bishop of Carthage during the mid-fifth century c. e.

A Donatist, Bishop Quodvultdeus was captured in 439, during the invasion by geiseric, the king of the vandals. strictly enforcing the Arian creed, Geiseric rounded up all the orthodox bishops and other clergy, put them on decrepit ships and sent them out to sea. They reached Naples, where the bishop died in exile. He was a friend of AUGUSTINE, with whom he corresponded, and the author of sermons and On the Promises and Predictions of God.

Rabirius (fl. late first century c. e.) Architect Rabirius’s masterpiece of design was produced at the order of Emperor Domitian, who hired him to create the DOMUS FLAVIA. He was a friend of martial.

Radagaisus (d. 406 c. e.) Barbarian ruler of a loose confederation of tribes, mostly composed of Vandals Radagaisus led two invasions of imperial provinces in the West, in 401 and 405 c. e. The first onslaught by Radagaisus came at the same time that alaric and the Visigoths were threatening Italy and Rome. Advancing into Raetia and Noricum, Radagaisus was attached by the MAG-ISTER MILITUM. STILICHO and thoroughly defeated. The c rushed tribes withdrew and even had to supply auxiliaries for use against Alaric. In 405, Radagaisus re turn e d, with large elements of ostro goths. Ignoring the Danu-bian provinces, the host descended on Italy via Aquileia; they then split up into columns, the largest under Rada-gaisus. Stilicho once more devised a suitable strategy, massacring the barbarians. Throughout late 405 and 406 the forces of Radagaisus were ground down and destroye d until he was captured and executed in August 406.

See also pollentia.

Radamistus of Iberia (d. 58 c. e.) Son of King Pharas-manes of Iberia

By 51 C. E., Radamistus was eager to have his own throne, and Pharasmanes, hoping to avoid losing his own kingdom, pointed his son toward mithridates (1) of Armenia, Pharasmanes’s own brother. Feigning an argument with his father, Radamistus fled to Mithridates but returned, unable to bring down that king through conspiracies.

Gathering an army he invaded Armenia, besieging his uncle at Garneae. Through bribery of local Roman officials, Radamistus lured Mithridates out and had him killed. Assuming the throne, the new monarch of Armenia found himself under attack by his own subjects. Without support from his father, who had to balance himself politically with Rome and Parthia, Radamistus fled the country, abandoning his own wife. In 58, as an act of good faith to Nero, Pharasmanes put Radamistus to death.

Raetia One of Rome’s smaller Danubian provinces, occupying the alpine territory between Germania Superior and NORICUM, just north of Italy and just south of the DANUBE. The original inhabitants were called the Rhaeti (or Raeti). Believed to be of Illyrian or perhaps of Tuscan descent, they lived in northern Italy until the Celts pushed them out. Moving to the region of modern Tyrol, Bavaria and a part of Switzerland, the Rhaeti proved warlike and willing to cross the Alps to make raids into Gallia CISALPINA.

Roman conquest of Raetia came in 16 b. c.e. when P Silius Nerva defeated them in battle. This success was followed up by Drusus the Elder and Tiberius in 15, with a large-scale invasion that brought all of Raetia under imperial control. Initial policy put Raetia under the care of the g o v e rror of Gallia Belgica. After Germanicus depart e d Gaul and Germany in 16 c. e. , the legate of Gallia Belgica appointed some kind of officer over the region. Opinions have varied among scholars as to the exact title of this officer, some favoring a prefect (praefectus civitatum), while others prefer an equestrian procurato r. In any event, after the reign of Trajan (98-117 C. E.) a procurator was in charge. His seat was at Augustus Vi n d e l i c o rum, with command over auxiliary units. There were four alae ( auxiliary c a v a l ry) and 11 cohorts at first, changing to three a l a e and 13 cohorts in the middle of the second century C. E.

Massive upheaval afflicted the province as a result of the MARCOMANNIC WARS, not only with bitter fighting, but also with changes in the administration. A legate (lega-tus), in charge of the III Italica legion took over the duties of the procurator. The added troops allowed the frontiers to be watched, especially the area along the defensive perimeter of the LIMES, where the Rhine met the Danube, as well as the agri decumates. A procurator eventually returned, but under Diocletian, Raetia was divided into Raetia I and II, in the diocese of Italia. From the start of the fifth century pressures built up on the Danubian border, and by the fall of the Western Empire Raetia had ceased to be an imperial possession.

Rationalis Chief financial minister of the state, prior to the reforms of Emperor Diocletian and the late empire. Among the tasks of the rationalis were the collection of all normal taxes and duties, the control of currency, and the administration of mines and mints. After the reforms of Diocletian, the rationalis and the a rationibus were replaced by the comes sacrarum largitionum.

See also FINANCE.

Rationibus, a Secretary of finance, in charge of maintaining the accounts and expenditures of the fiscus. His role in the finances of the early empire was considerable. Originally an office held by a freedman, from the second century C. E. and the reign of Hadrian, Equestrians (equi-TES) assumed total control. The a rationibus was rendered unnecessary by the comes sacrarum largitionum of the fourth century C. E.

See FINANCE.

Insignificant in the affairs of Rome until the late first century B. C.E., when Emperor Augustus was looking for an ideal location for his Adriatic fleet. With its marshes, accessibility from only one direction by land, and its position far enough north to defend Aquileia, Ravenna was chosen.

Already a municipium in 49 b. c.e., the city underwent major reconstruction and improvement to accommodate its new status. Most important, a canal was dug from the Po River to the city and then to the coast to allow small-boat traffic along the route. The subsequent harbor, called Classis, came to dominate the economic and political life of the city, for it was its very heart. As one of the major ports in the Mediterranean, Ravenna flourished with exports, including wine, ships, and the goods produced throughout northern Italy, especially in MEDIOLANUM (Milan).

While the port held the fleet it remained strategically essential to imperial naval defenses; but by the fourth century C. E., the seagoing might of Rome had deteriorated. By the fifth century, Ravenna’s fortunes improved as it became capital of the Western Empire. In 404 C. E., Emperor honorius decided that Ravenna, with its defensively advantageous, mosquito-ridden environs and stout walls, was the safest place to conduct government. He thus moved there and subsequent emperors lived both there and in Rome. So easily defended was Ravenna that the barbarian king ODOACER adopted it as his chief city, as did the Ostrogoth Theodoric, the Byzantines and even the Lombards, centuries later.

Reburrus, T. Crispus (fl. late first century c. e.) Architect

Reburrus was responsible for the design of two superb amphitheaters, in nemausus (Nimes) and arles. Both were virtually identical in style and both have survived in amazingly fine condition.

Raurici Tribe residing in Gaul between the sequani and the helvetii. Suffering from the inroads of Germanic peoples in Gaul, they joined the Helvetians in their attempted migration to better lands in southern Gaul, sharing in the defeat at the hands of Julius caesar in 58 B. C.E. In 52 b. c.e. some elements of the Raurici threw in with VERCINGETORIX but were again routed by Caesar at ALESIA. Subsequently, the tribe was under the influence and control of the Roman administration in Germania Superior, in such cantons as Basel and Augusta Rauricorum.

Ravenna North Italian city; in Gallia Cisalpina, a few miles inland from the Adriatic coast in the middle of marshes. Ravenna may have been founded by the Thessalians, although the name was probably Etruscan in origin. It passed into the hands of the Umbrians and was rebus, agentes in The imperial courier service that replaced the unpopular FRUMENTARII, sometime during the late third century c. e. under Emperor Diocletian, or perhaps around the year 319 c. e. As a result of the reforms of Diocletian, the frumentarii were disbanded; their sinister reputation had ended their usefulness. But the central imperial administration still needed couriers, and agentes in rebus filled this task perfectly. Originally they acted as the dispatch carriers for the Roman Empire. Eventually they assumed a variety of other duties. During the reign of Constantius II (337-361 C. E.), the agentes were sent out to the provinces and were expected to monitor the mail and communications and to send back reports on the events within their provincial jurisdictions. Their routine assignments brought them into contact with vast amounts of intelligence, and with the full approval of Constantius they ferreted out all possibly treasonous activities. Two were appointed to each province in 357, one in 395 and more again after 412. Each member of the agentes in rebus was normally promoted into other branches of government.

The corps, with its known activity of gathering secrets as the frumentarii had, acquired a name for terror. There has been debate as to the extent of their secret police work, for actual arrests and torture probably did not fall under their authority However, in the hands of a ruthl ess e m p e ror like Constantius II, they could be given considerable freedom in hunting down information or evidence of a crime. This facet of their activities overshadowed other, m o re mundane aspects, such as carrying letters or verifying that a traveler was carrying the right diplo mata while using the cu rsus publicus (postal system).

Rebus Bellicis, De An anonymous fourth-century C. E. work, On Matters of Wars, that was addressed to Emperors Valentinian I and Valens. It is concerned chiefly with a series of proposed reforms touching upon the army, the law, administration in the provinces, and imperial finances.

Rectus (d. 40 C. E.) A Stoic philosopher A friend of Julius kanus, Rectus was put to death in 40 C. E., by Emperor Gaius Caligula as part of his purge of Stoics and other philosophers.

Rectus, Aemilius (early first century c. e.) Prefect of Egypt early in the reign of Tiberius (14-37 c. e.)

Rectus was overly zealous in the collection of taxes on the Nile. When he sent to Rome far more money than expected, Tiberius wrote him: “I expect my sheep to be shorn, not shaved.”

Red Sea One of the main avenues of trade between the West and the Far East. Ships from INDIA sailed up the sea, passing the Troglodyte Coast on the left and ARABIA on the right. Important trading centers were Leuke Komo, belonging to the Nabataeans, and Arsinoe, opposite Pelusium, along the Sinai Peninsula. Roman vessels probably patrolled the region, at least as far as the borders of the province of EGYPT.

Regalianus (Regillianus) (fl. third century c. e.) Roman general

Regalianus served in the army of the emperors Valerian and Gallienus. In 260 c. e. was proclaimed emperor. He had supposedly been commander of the legions in ILLYRICUM when elevated; unable to hold the loyalty of his troops, he was murdered.

Regulus, Publius Memmius (fl. first century c. e.) Consul in 31 c. e.

Regulus held his office during the fall of the prefect SEJANUS. Loyal to Tiberius, it was Regulus who summoned Sejanus to face the charges read before the Senate, and he also led out the prefect to be arrested by Cornelius Laco, prefect of the city As a reward for his services, he replaced Poppaeus Sabinus as governor of Macedonia and perhaps Achaea in 35. Married to lollia Paulina, he was forced to see her wed to Emperor gaius Caligula in 38, although the emperor later divorced her.

Relegatio A form of banishment, less severe than exsil-lUM, during the Republic and early Roman Empire. It was similar to exile except that it did not include the loss of citizenship and possessions. The writer Ovid, for example, was ordered to live in Tomi, near the Black Sea.

Icl i gi o n One of the guiding forces of the life and sociopolitical systems of Rome. Although old and established, Roman religion was ever altered and influenced— and ultimately destroyed—by the foreign gods and cults b rought into Rome by the conquering legions and by the e m p e rors. The Italians, and later the Romans, sprang from the same agrarian background as the Greeks, and perceived that nature was controlled by powerful natural forces. However, the early gods and goddesses of Rome never developed the anthropomorphic tendencies so obvious in the Hellenic pantheon. Roman deities re t a i n e d their identification with nature, being worshiped in this sense. As there were spirits at work in every corner of the cosmos, new gods sprang up and were worshiped, joining such established divinities as Jupiter, Juno, Mars, and Vesta. This accepted idea of adding gods to the cults of Rome had the most profound consequences on the development of Roman religion. It not only made Rome m o re tolerant of such foreign creeds as Judaism but also helped ensure the popularity of the gods of vanquished states.

The Greeks arrived in Rome probably before the end of the kingly era. Shrines by Tarquinius to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva elevated these three to the level of supreme rulers of the Roman pantheon. Other Grecian imports included Apollo, Cybele, and Asclepius (Aesculapius). Total victory for the Greeks came only after the Punic Wars, when the Romans, now masters of the Mediterranean world, adopted wholesale Greek identities for their gods. Old, titanic forces of nature were replaced by new, more human deities, in an ironic replaying of Greece’s own theological history. Zeus was Jupiter, Hera was Juno, Athena was Minerva, Poseidon was Neptune, and so on.

Early in Roman religious history a tendency developed to link political power with religion. The kings of Rome probably began this idea, acting as heads of the priesthoods of Rome while retaining their monarch! cal status. In the Republic this system was unchanged, placing, as it did, broad authority in the hands of the Patrician class. Magistrates formed the priestly colleges, p e rf o rmed the ceremonies of worship and responded to the decrees of the Senate, which decided most questions of a religious or doctrinal nature. But there was no centralization or institutionalization of the cult of state, a situation made worse by the rise of the Plebeians. T hu s, while the sacred rites were perfo rmed right up until the end of the Republic, they had lost much of their m e aning.

The fact that the fields of state and religion could be fused had been proven by the kings, to a lesser extent by the magistrates, and, in terms of literature, by Varro, with his Antiquitates, which combined his studies of human and divine antiquities. What was needed was the presence of one single figure at the center of the cult. Julius Caesar was certainly in a position to be that figure, but he died before most of his plan could be realized. The leader who did succeed was Augustus.

After becoming master of the Roman world by 27 B. C.E., the man named Octavian assumed the title of Augustus, an indication of his more than human stature. The title was taken presumably with the approval of the Roman gods, and he served as the Pontifex Maximus, or supreme head of all Roman worship, a position retained by his successors until the reign of Gratian in the late fourth century c. e. A revival accompanied his supremacy The ARVAL BRETHREN were reinvigorated, and throughout the empire the divine station of the emperor and Rome was preached to the provinces (see imperial cult for details).

It can be argued that the Augustan religious revival was neither long-lasting nor successful. The Romans willingly participated in the ceremonies necessary for keeping the favor of the gods or hailing the glory of their empire, but so politically entwined had the gods become that they had lost spiritual impact. For divine inspiration Rome looked elsewhere, finding its answers in the same place that the Roman soldier had looked: the Oriental cults. Unquestionably, foreign deities were popular at all levels of society, fitting into the Roman system because of its provisions for individual worship outside of the nationally revered pantheon.

Traditionally, the state of Rome took a dim view of strange cults, refusing at first to let them cross the sanctity of the POMERIUM, or the ancient line of the city Cybele, with her bizarre priests, was not formally accepted until the time of Claudius, although a temple to her was allowed on the Palatine as early as 191 b. c.e. Augustus helped introduce his patron, Apollo. The most important early breakthrough came in the time of Gaius Caligula, who built a temple to Isis in Rome. Henceforth, as the Claudian favor to Cybele showed, strange gods were welcome.

Mithraism, with its connection to sun worship, arrived also in the first century C. E., from the East. It found followers in the ranks of the army and among the social elite. Oriental faiths soon spread throughout the Eastern Empire, with Serapis, Elagabalus and even Osiris offering choices to the soul-searching Romans. Two interesting trends evolved toward the end of the second century: syncretism and monotheism. Syncretism, the mixing together of one or more deities into a single form, was used in the Mithraic cult, as the god was sometimes equated with Sol Invictus. The effect of all this was to render Roman mythology into a debased and mystical mode of worship. Monotheism, born perhaps out of Mithraic-Solar belief and Christianity, was a partial return to the prime deity of the cult of state. Sol, sometimes known as Elagabalus in the early third century, was respected by the Flavians and placed at the heart of the Roman religion of state by Aurelian. All that Sol Invictus succeeded in doing, however, was to prepare the Roman Empire psychologically for the far more enduring god of Christianity.

This eastern cult, which came to conquer the entire empire, was one of the few creeds actively persecuted by Rome. After Judaism effectively separated itself from Christianity, Christians came under attack because of the realization that belief in Jesus Christ was exclusive. One could not attend Christian services as well as offer sacrifices to Jupiter. An eternal enmity erupted between Christianity and what came to be known as organized paganism.

In addition, a variety of creeds and cults were tolerated by Rome among its subject people, including:

Suggested Readings: Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon Price. Religions of Rome. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998; Benko, Stephen. Pagan Rome and the Early Christians. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984; Burriss, Eli. Taboo, Magic, Spirits; A Study of Primitive Elements in Roman Religion. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972; Carter, Jesse Benedict. The Religious Life of Ancient Rome: A Study in the Development of Religious Consciousness, from the Foundation of the City Until the Death of Gregory the Great. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1972; Cumont, Franz. After Life in Roman Paganism: Lectures Delivered at Yale University on the Silliman Foundation. New York: Dover Publications, 1959; Dowden, Ken. Religion and the Romans. London: Bristol Classical Press, 1995; Dumezil, Georges. Archaic Roman Religion. Translated by Philip Krapp. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins

University Press, 1996;-. Camillus: A Study of Indo-

European Religion as Roman History. Translated by Annette Aronowicz and Josette Bryson. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980; Ferguson, John. Greek and Roman Religion: A Source Book. Park Ridge, N. J.: Noyes

Press, 1980;-. The Religions of the Roman Empire.

Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982; Fishwick, Duncan. The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire. New York: E. J. Brill, 1987; Fox, Robin Lane. Pagans and Christians. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988; Glover,

T.  R. The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire. Boston: Beacon Press, 1960; Grant, Frederick. Ancient Roman Religion. New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1957; Grant, Michael. Roman Myths. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1971; Henig, Martin, and Anthony King, eds. Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire. Oxford,

U. K.: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, 1986; Henig, Martin. Religion in Roman Britain. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984; Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979; Henig, Martin, and Anthony King, eds. Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire. Oxford, U. K.: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, 1986; Lyttelton, Margaret, and Werner Forman. The Romans, Their Gods and Their Beliefs. London: Orbis, 1984; MacMullen, Ramsay. Paganism in the Roman Empire. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981; Moeller, Walter O. The Mithraic Origin and Meanings of the Rotas-Sator Square. Leiden: Brill, 1973; North, J. A. Roman Religion. Oxford, U. K.: Oxford University Press, 2000; Ogilvie, R. M. The Romans and Their Gods in the Age of Augustus. New York, Norton, 1970; Rodwell, Warwick, ed. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research in Roman Britain; with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples in Continental Europe. Oxford, U. K.: B. A. R., 1980; Smith, John Holland. The Death of Classical Paganism. New York: Scribner, 1976; Szemler, G. J. The Priests of the Roman Republic. A Study of Interactions between Priesthoods and Magistracies. Brussels: Latomus, 1972; Taylor, Lily Ross. The Divinity of the Roman Emperor. New York: Arno Press, 1975; Turcan, Robert. The Cults of the Roman Empire, transl. Antonia Nevill. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1996; Warde Fowler, W The Religious Experience of the Roman People from the Earliest Times to the Age of Augustus. London: Macmillan, 1922; Wardman, Alan. Religion and Statecraft Among the Romans. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982; Watson, Alan. The State, Law, and Religion: Pagan Rome. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992.

See also astrology; death; festivals; genius; gods

AND GODDESSES OF ROME; LUDI; MAGIC; NEOPLATONISM;

Neo-pythagoreanism; paganism; priesthood.

Remigius (Remi) (c. 438-533) So-called Apostle of the Franks

Noted for his baptism of King Clovis I of the Franks and for converting the Frankish people, Remigius was the son of Emile, count of Laon (Laudunum). He studied at Reims and was so renowned for his intelligence and holiness that he was appointed archbishop of Reims at the age of 22. He thereafter devoted himself to the spread of Christianity in Gaul (Roman France), establishing sees at Tournai, Laon, Arras, Therouanne, and Cambrai. On excellent terms with Clovis, he brought the ruler into the faith, traditionally baptizing him in Reims on December 24, 498, in the presence of most of the Frankish army.

Remistus (fifth century c. e.) Magister militum and Patrician

Remistus was one of the most powerful figures in the Western Empire and a political shield for Emperor avitus in 455. The positions of magister militum in praesentalis and Patrician were coveted by his lieutenant, the magister militum ricimer. To seize Remistus’s post and to replace Avitus eventually with his own candidate, majorian, Ricimer plotted the assassination of his superior. This he accomplished in 456, while Remistus was at Ravenna.

Repentinus, Fabius Cornelius (fl. first century c. e.) Prefect of the praetorian guard

Repentinus served during the reigns of Antoninus Pius (138-161 C. E.), Marcus Aurelius (161-180 c. e.) and perhaps Commodus (177-192 C. E.). Repentinus succeeded to the prefecture with Furius victorinus, following the death (date uncertain) of Tattius Maximus. He was forced to step down following a scandal that he had received his position through the influence of an imperial mistress.

Res Gestae Divi Augustus A set of inscriptions published in Rome following the death of Emperor Augustus in 14 C. E., detailing the political, social, religious, and architectural achievements of his reign. Written by Augustus before his death, the Achievements of Divine

Augustus was most certainly a propaganda device but characteristically was neither ostentatious nor pompous. In clear terms he listed the successes of his regime, its gifts to the Romans and the good services it had rendered to the world. The Res Gestae was a brilliant means of shaming any who might have questioned the efficacy of the Augustan principate, while preserving for posterity a record of considerable value. It is also known as the Mon-umentum Ancyranum, from a copy of a stone at Ankara.

Res privata Term used to describe the vast possessions of the emperors. Known officially as the res privata prin-cipis, it was the inevitable outgrowth of the patrimonium or private holdings of the imperial house, and came to be a rival to the fiscus or state domains. Following the victory of Septimius Severus (ruled 193-211 C. E.) over his rivals, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, he was confronted with a major crisis in the finances of the Roman Empire. Among his solutions was the outright seizure of property belonging to his vanquished enemies. These new estates, coupled with the already extensive lands included in the patrimonium increased the personal wealth of the Severans to such a degree that an entirely new treasury had to be created, the res privata was under the care of procurators, with a parallel in the rationalis of the fiscus. Under the later emperors, res privata passed into the hands of the comes rerum privatarum.

See also finance.

Rheims Originally the capital city of the Gallic tribe of the RHEMI, later made the capital of Gallia Belgica. Situated just south of the Aisne River and east of lutetia (Paris), in a position close enough to Germania to make control of the Rhine frontier possible, the imperial governor had his residence there, while the Rhemi continued to occupy the civitas of Rheims.

See also gallia.

Rhemi One of the largest and most powerful Gallic tribes of Gallia Belgica; located near their capital of RHEIMS. In 57 B. C.E., Julius CAESAR invaded Gallia Belgica, and the Rhemi (or Rheimi) wisely decided to make an alliance with Rome. Caesar received from them vast amounts of intelligence concerning the other peoples of the regions, and the Rhemi also provided him with scouts. Throughout the gallic wars, the Rhemi remained steadfastly loyal to Caesar, emerging as the second leading state in Gaul (gallia). They continued to enjoy Roman favor, working against the uprising of CIVILIS in 69 c. e.