Much of our knowledge of Egyptian religion derives from physical and textual evidence from the mortuary sphere. The belief in some sort of afterlife is readily apparent already in the Predynastic cemeteries where individuals from all walks of life were placed consistently in a particular position and direction within their graves, often accompanied by carefully arranged goods such as pottery or figurines. But just as there were differences in religious practices based on rank, gender, and wealth so too mortuary practices varied greatly in terms of tomb structure, preparation of the body, rituals, grave goods, and inclusion of texts. Generally speaking however, the goal was to enjoy eternal life in the Duat, the afterlife inhabited by the gods and the dead. The structures were therefore built to last forever and placed in the dry desert environment, allowing far greater preservation of their contents than the architecture of daily life. Much of our knowledge of daily Egyptian religion therefore stems from the representations on tomb walls that feature representations of many of the deities, as well as festivals and offering rituals.
Aside from spells and hymns, mortuary compositions are our greatest source for uncovering Egyptian myths. Narrative mythology in the Pharaonic period was rare, and thus our understanding is based on piecing together single episodes or scenes from a variety of sources. The Pyramid Texts, written on the interior walls of pyramids, provided the king with the words and knowledge he would use in order to become one with the gods. In contrast to the sky-oriented Pyramid Texts, the texts written on First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom elite coffins reflect a chthonic dimension to the afterlife. Available for both men and women, these texts reflect a more universal yet more difficult access to previously restricted realms. Many of the Pyramid and Coffin Texts continued to be used in the New Kingdom as sections of the Book of the Dead. This collection of compositions was initially geared towards the non-royal dead, and its popularity is attested by its continued use through the Roman Period.
Compositions on the walls of tombs of the New Kingdom pharaohs provide a glimpse of the afterlife from a completely different point of view - that of the sun-god as he journeyed through the hours of the night. As in all aspects of life in Ancient Egypt, here maintenance of order was of primary concern, with the focus of many of the compositions being the victory of the sun-god (Re) over the serpent of chaos (Apep). It was believed that this was re-enacted each and every night after the sun-god sank in the west with his entourage of other gods and the king. As the god passed through, the dead would awaken and acclaim in joy at being granted the vision of the sun god. They were provided by the god with food, clothing, and the ability to use their senses, and in return they would join the battle against his enemies. At the crux of the night, the aged Re (represented as an old ram) merged with Osiris, the god of the dead, in a perfect conjunction - a syncretism that sparked the rebirth of the sun-god in a rejuvenated youthful state, represented now as the scarab beetle. Through the use of heka and knowledge Re succeeded in suppressing the constant movement of Apep every night, and to emerge triumphantly every dawn in a revitalized state. This constant yet cyclical maintenance of maat was central to Egyptian religious ideology, and re-enacted on another scale not only by the pharaoh who was responsible for maintaining order in the Egyptian empire, but also by all Egyptians within the sphere of their own lives, no matter how humble.
FURTHER READING
The literature on Ancient Egyptian religion is enormous. The following works are particularly recommended to build on issues raised in this discussion: Allen 1989; Assmann 2001; Clarysse, Schoors, and Willems 1998; Hornung 1992, 1996; Pinch 1994, 2004; Quirke 1992; Ritner 1993; Stevens 2006; Szpakowska 2006; and Wilkinson 2003.
World History
