By 400 BC, Celtic-speaking societies had been developing in Europe for several hundred years. Taken as a whole, this early period can be characterised as one of gradual economic intensification and geographic expansion. On the continent of Europe, the Hallstatt B elites had been superseded by their more westerly phase D counterparts, who benefitted from Greek commercial enterprise. After 500 bc, these groups had, in turn, been replaced by a more widely dispersed group of La Tene elites who, over the succeeding century, developed a remarkably homogenised culture with a very distinctive art style.
While recognising this early manifestation of Celtic unity, it must be emphasized that, in 400 bc. La Tene culture and Celtic-speaking Europe were by no means co-extensive. There were, in fact, two Celtic zones: the La Tene zone across central Europe, and a peripheral zone (including northern Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles) where Celtic languages w'ere spoken, but where La Tene culture had little impact at this time.
A literate culture?
By no means all of the inhabitants of the peripheral zone spoke Celtic, and within the La Tene heartland linguistic homogeneity is by no means certain. The only proof of language is wTiting, and Celtic inscriptions are very scarce, particularly before 400 bc.
Those few' inscriptions that sur ive are sparse, and leave many questions unanswered. For example, w'hat proportion of the population could read? How' many could read the language of the inscription, or w’ere
> Vase from Saint-Pol-de-Leon, Finistere, north-west France. The spiral decoration is in the Waldalgesheim style, and derives from metal engravings of the 4th century bc. Today, Saint-Pol-de-Lwn lies in the Breton-speaking area of France.
Intended to read it? Was the language that they read the same as the language they spoke at home? Even in exclusively Celtic-speaking areas, there are bound to have been differences of accent, dialect, and other characteristics, such as 'educated' speech ('correct' pronunciation), and perhaps even the reserv ed use of specific 'royal' or sacred vocabularies.
One perspective on the spread of Celtic languages in Europe, is to iew 'Celtic' as a lingua franca that developed after c. lOOO bc among w'arrior elites who, through a variety' of military and economic strategies, w ere able to establish local dominance. While sidestepping issues of ethnic origin and precise chronology, this view' does provide a framew'ork for understanding w hat Early Celtic Europe w'as like.
Farming and rituals of war
Celtic society' w'as mainly composed of small-scale farmers w'ho grew' cereals such as barley and w'heat as staples, and raised large numbers of pigs, sheep and cattle. Horses w'ere used as w'ork animals as w'ell as for transport. These farmers collectively supported (or W'ere dominated by) elite male groups, for w'hom an ideal life consisted of w'ar, sport and hospitality. The distinctions between w'ar and sport were likely to ha e been somewhat blurred as both took place mainly w'ith-in the Celtic communities. Warfare between Celts - to restore hurt pride, score points off neighbours or just for sheer entertainment - may w'ell have deeloped into fairly ritualised affairs intended to minimise casualties among the elite. The concept of any form of 'national' w'arfare would have been entirely alien to Celts at the end of the 5th century' bc. Such concepts could only arise w hen the dites came into military' conflict w ith a significant other (as opposed to peoples less W'ell organised than themseh es), in the form of highly disciplined Mediterranean armies.
Feasting and gift-giving
Within the elites there seems to have been the same pyramid structure as in Celtic society as a w'hole. StKial and political pow'er rested in the hands of single individuals or families who, either through inheritance or by right of force, had established monopolistic control over the available 'w ealth' of a district or region. Pow'er w'as maintained through traditional aristocratic means, by 'purchasing' allegiance with largess. 'Celtic' institutions, such as feasting, not only allowed a 'prince' to dispense lavish hospitality, but also provided a specific peer-arena within w hich the upper echelons of the elite (barons/senior courtiers) could compete w'ith each other in a variety of w'ays that avoided bloodshed.
The other arena for competition and the purchase of allegiance w'ithin the elites, w'as in the giving and receiving of prestigious gifts, especially those, such as swords and jew'ellery, that could ser e as badges of rank and status. Apart from a trickle of Mediterranean goods, which largely dried up after 400 BC, there w'as no source of such gifts other than local craftw'orkers. If we seek an explanation for the development of La Tene art, w'e need look no further than the dictates of fashion and social climbing among the Celtic aristtKracy.
During the Early La Tene period, some of these Celtic elites consolidated into larger tribal groupings that became asscKiated w'ith a geographical area, the Boii in Bohemia, for example. In 400 bc, these 'tribes' W'ere the largest ethnic units to w'hich any of the Celtic-speaking inhabitants of Europe would have admitted belonging; and the vast majority would have had no greater sense of belonging than to their ow'n dispersed village.
< Celtic world in c.400 bc
While Celtic languages may have been spoken across most of western Europe by the end of the 5th century bc, the distinaive La Tene culture was confined to a relatively small area. During the following century, as the Celts pushed southwards and eastwards, both their language and their material culture became much more widespread.
Ў Celtic helmet found at Agris, Charente, west France. This beautiful helmet is made of iron and bronze, and is covered with gold and inlaid with coral. It dates from the 4th century bc.
World History
