Medir (fl. 27th century b. c.e.) Governor of the Third Dynasty
He served in the reign of djoser (2630-2611 b. c.e.). Medir was governor of certain territories in Upper Egypt. When the Nile failed to rise and inundate the land over a span of years, Djoser consulted with Medir, and with his vizier of Memphis, imhotep, seeking remedies from them both. The two counselors advised that Djoser should visit ELEPHANTINE Island, because he had seen the god khnum in one of his dreams. Khnum’s cult center was on the Elephantine. Djoser visited the shrine and made certain repairs and additions, and the Nile flooded the land soon after. This event was commemorated on the famine stela at SEHEL ISLAND in a later era.
Medjay This was the name given to units of the Nubian (modern Sudanese) forces long in service in Egypt, particularly under kamose of the Seventeenth Dynasty (c. 1550 b. c.e.) when he began his campaigns to oust the HYKSOS from the northwestern territories of the land. Kamose’s father, Sekenenre ta’o ii, had started the war against the Hyksos ruler, apophis. The Medjay, famed as warriors of cunning and stamina, served as scouts for the Egyptians on the marches or at the oases of the Libyan desert. In actual battle they formed light infantry units and rushed to the front lines, delighting in hand-to-hand combat and the slaughter of the enemy
When ’ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b. c.e.), the brother of Kamose and the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.), assaulted the Hyksos capital of Avaris, the Medjay were again at his side. When the war ended successfully, the Medjay became the backbone of the newly formed state police in times of peace. Some of the members, men such as dedu, distinguished themselves and were given high political and government posts. tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) built a temple to Dedun, the Nubian god who was probably patron of the Nubian troops. The Medjay are associated with the PAN-GRAVE people in southern Egypt and Lower Nubia. Indications are that these troops served as guardians of the viceroy of Kush and various fortresses. The original Medjay forces are recorded as early as the Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b. c.e.) when they were used as mercenary troops.
See also blemmyes; mahu.
Megabyzus (fl. fifth century b. c.e.) Renowned general of Persia
He served artaxerxes i (r. 465-424 b. c.e.) in Egypt as the head of the forces occupying the Nile Valley Megabyzus had started his career under xerxes i (r. 486-466 b. c.e.), becoming his brother-in-law. He aided the cabal that assassinated Xerxes I, however. Under
Artaxerxes I, Megabyzus was sent to Egypt to put down the revolt of inaros, a native Egyptian who had slain General achaemenes, Xerxes I’s brother, in battle. After a series of skirmishes, Megabyzus forced Inaros to retreat to an island in the Nile. A traitor surrendered the rebel to the Persians, and Megabyzus promised Inaros’s personal safety. The rebel was crucified, however, because the Persian queen mother, Amastris, would not allow the slayer of Achaemenes to live.
Megabyzus rebelled at the execution, which he believed broke his pledge and stained his honor. He went to Artaxerxes I’s court and stated his views openly For this and other openly critical remarks, Megabyzus was exiled to a small city on the Persian Gulf. There he pretended to have contracted leprosy and was soon returned to the court. The anger Megabyzus felt at having his sworn oath reviled kept him from marching against a second Egyptian rebel, armyrtaeus, who declared the region of the far western Delta independent from Persian control.
Megiddo, Ar - A fortress on the northern slopes of Mount Carmel, in modern Israel, it commanded the trade routes to Anatolia (modern Turkey), Syria, and the valley of the Euphrates River. The fortress was erected on a ridge and served as a barrier to any military force advancing from the south. In the reign of tuthmosis iii (1479-1425 b. c.e.), the ruler of the city-state of kadesh and canaanite allies took up a position in front of Ar-Megiddo as the 30,000-man Egyptian army approached. Tuthmosis III had marched from the Egyptian Delta on April 19, 1468 b. c.e. By May 10, he had reached Mount Carmel and saw the assembled enemy units. Despite warnings from his commanders, Tuthmosis III took his army over the slopes of Mount Carmel, moving single file for 40 miles. It took three days to bring the entire force through the mountain passes, but Kadesh and his allies discovered the Egyptian cavalry behind them.
The enemy raced to Ar-Megiddo fortress, and they rushed inside, closing the gates. Late arrivals at the fort had to climb ropes made of clothes and linens to gain entrance. Tuthmosis Ill’s men looted the area until he called a halt. They then built a wall around the fortress and installed a garrison and siege units. Ar-Megiddo lasted seven months before disease, hunger, and thirst forced the trapped inhabitants to open the city gates and surrender. Tuthmosis III, meanwhile, ravaged the lands of the besieged rulers and their troops and returned to accept their surrender personally Because the Egyptians had stopped their pursuit to loot the area, Kadesh’s ruler escaped. Ar-Megiddo, however, became the famed “end of the world” throughout the region, the modern Armageddon. Kadesh would also provide RAMESSES II (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) with a military crisis during his reign.
Mehen A great serpent in the Egyptian cosmological traditions, associated with the solar cult of the god re, Mehen was the protector of Re, coiling around the solar bark of the deity as it traveled across the sky Bearers carried Mehen and the bark on their journey In some traditions, Mehen had two heads, one at each at each end, in order to destroy the enemies of Re.
See also solar cult.
Mehu (fl. 24th and 23rd centuries b. c.e.) Princely official of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties
Mehu served as vizier to unis (r. 2356-2323 b. c.e.) and TETI (r. 2323-2291 b. c.e.). He is recorded as being the son of Idut. Mehu was buried in a borrowed tomb at saqqara, near Unis’s mortuary complex. A panel in the tomb depicts the original owner. MASTABA-shaped, the tomb had three chambers and a courtyard, with additional mud-brick masonry A stela was discovered, as well as reliefs, including one depicting the trapping of birds.
Mehurt (Mehturt, Mehueret) A celestial being depicted in the form of a cow, this divine creature was associated with the cultic ceremonies of the god re. The name of the being meant “Flooding Waters,” and she represented the spiritual river of the heavens. Re sailed his bark alongside her on his daily rounds. Mehurt was also considered part of the cult of ISIS. She was a protector of the dead when they appeared in the judgment halls of OSIRIS beyond the grave.
Mehy (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Official of the Nineteenth Dynasty who incurred the wrath of Ramesses II He started his career in the reign of seti i (1306-1290 b. c.e.). Mehy’s rank and role remain a mystery. The agents of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.), the successor of Seti I, vandalized Mehy’s reliefs in his tomb. Such reliefs would have provided details about his service to the pharaohs. It is obvious that Mehy was a warrior. He was normally depicted in princely trappings and appeared on Seti I’s war reliefs. Some of the love songs of the era mention the fact that Mehy was a commoner by birth, and he was possibly a favorite of Seti I. In either case he earned the enmity of Ramesses II and was singled out for eternal disgrace by having his tomb portraits damaged.
Meidum This site near the faiyum area served as a royal necropolis for the Third and Fourth Dynasties. A step PYRAMID at Meidum was probably started by huni (r. 2599-2575 b. c.e.) and completed by snefru (r. 2575-2551 b. c.e.). This pyramid was erected on an earthen platform and was composed originally of eight layers. The structure collapsed some time later, possibly as late as the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.). The outer casing, however, was damaged and collapsed during construction. The mummies of several individuals were discovered in the resulting debris. Interior passages and chambers led to a vertical shaft and a burial room, which was lined with limestone. The remains of a wooden coffin were discovered in this corbeled chamber, and a mortuary temple was also found on the east side of the pyramid, containing two rounded stelae. A causeway also led to a valley temple.
A series of Fourth Dynasty (2575-2465 b. c.e.) MASTABA tombs surround the pyramid, some containing spectacular reliefs and statuary. The famous Meidum geese paintings were part of the reliefs in the tomb of nefer-ma’at and his wife Atet. Nearby, the mastaba of Prince RAHOTEP and his wife nofret (1) contained a unique portrait style statue group. The paintings and statues are in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. A Fifth Dynasty (2465-2323 b. c.e.) mummy was also found in Meidum.
Meir This necropolis site was on the banks of the Nile, north of modern assiut, the domain of the governor of CUSAE. The necropolis was used from the Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b. c.e.) to the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 b. c.e.). Rock-cut tombs with burial shafts were uncovered at Meir. The Cusae officials and their families were entombed on the site. cusae was once the capital of the fourteenth nome of Upper Egypt, and during the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1550 b. c.e.) was the southernmost holding of the hyksos. Beautiful reliefs and statues were recovered on this site.
Mekes An ancient Egyptian royal scepter designed to be flat at one end, the mekes represented pharaonic powers in royal rites and was used by the rulers in many historical periods at formal court or temple ceremonies. The original cultic symbolism of the scepter is not known, and the ritual purpose is not clear.
Meket-Aten (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty
A princess, she was the daughter of akhenaten (r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.) and Queen nefertiti. Paintings depict her royal parents mourning her death at a young age. In the paintings a nurse is shown carrying a royal baby, leading to the assumption that Meket-Aten died in childbirth. Akhenaten was probably the father. Meket-Aten was buried at ’amarna, but her tomb and remains were vandalized. The Amarna necropolis suffered the same sort of destruction as the main capital buildings of Akhenaten at the hands of horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b. c.e.) and the Amunite priests of thebes. The surviving members of Akhenaten’s reign did not fare much better after his death.
Meketre (fl. 21st century b. c.e.) Chancellor of the Eleventh Dynasty famous for his mortuary figures He served montuhotep ii (r. 2061-2010 b. c.e.), as the chancellor and chief steward of Egypt during a period of war and reunification. Meketre also survived long enough to serve montuhotep iii (r. 2010-1998 b. c.e.). His tomb at Deir el-Qurna, near deir el-bahri, on the western shore of the Nile at thebes, was designed to rest on the cliff. The tomb had a mud-brick wall and courtyard with limestone columns. The entrance leads 20 yards into the side of the cliff, where a chapel honors Meketre and his son, inyotef.
The beautifully wrapped mummy of Wah, Meketre’s estate manager, was discovered there also. Modern X rays revealed an elaborate funerary collar on Wah, necklaces, and two solid silver scarabs. The burial chamber of Meketre contained a cedar coffin with gilded inscriptions. other relatives were buried in nearby shafts. A hidden chamber contained wooden replicas depicting daily life on Meketre’s estate. Painted miniatures, including soldiers, ships, farmworkers, overseers, even cattle, were placed in the tomb with miniature gardens and buildings. A granary, bakery, spinning shop, and a workroom are depicted, as well as yachts. The buildings contained porticos, columns, and landscapes.
Mekhenet This was the Egyptian name of the solar bark of the god RE, used during his sojourn through the sky
See also mandet.
Mekhtemweskhet (1) (fl. 10th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twenty-first Dynasty
She was the consort of Shoshenq, a Libyan military commander at BUBASTIS, and the mother of osochor (r. 984-978 b. c.e.), siamun (r. 978-959 b. c.e.), and SHOSHENQ I (r. 945-924 b. c.e.). She also had another son, Nimlot. Mekhtemweskhet was a Libyan noblewoman, a member of the ruling class of the meshwesh, the Libyan ranking clan.
Mekhtemweskhet (2) (fl. seventh century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty The consort of psammetichus i (r. 664-610 b. c.e.), she was the daughter of harsiese, the high priest of Heliopolis, and was probably the mother of necho ii (r. 610-595 b. c.e.), Psammetichus I’s heir. Mehtemweskhet’s daughter was NITOCRIS (2), the god’s wife of amun. Mekhtemweskhet was honored with a tomb chapel at KARNAK, along with Nitocris.
Mekhtemweskhet (3) (fl. seventh century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty A consort of necho ii (610-595 b. c.e.), she was probably the daughter of psammetichus i and Queen mekhtemweskhet (2). This Libyan queen was the mother of psammetichus II.
Mekhu See sabni.
Memmius, Lucius (fl. second century b. c.e.) Roman official and scholar who arrived in Egypt in 112 b. c.e.
His tour of the Nile Valley took place in the joint reign of PTOLEMY IX SOTER II (116-107, 88-81 B. C.E.) and CLEOPATRA (3). Memmius traveled to the faiyum region in Middle Egypt in order to study crocodiles at crocodilopolis. The royal court at ALEXANDRIA sent a letter to Faiyum officials, instructing them to assist Lucius Memmius in his efforts to see the labyrinth as well. The Labyrinth was the temple precinct of amenemhet iii (r. 1844-1797 b. c.e.) at HAWARA in the Faiyum. The Egyptians were instructed to take “the greatest pains” in making Mem-mius satisfied at every turn.
Memnomium This was the name given to the cenotaph of SETI I (1306-1290 b. c.e.) or rameses ii (r. 12901224 b. c.e.) by the Greek historian strabo. This L-shaped tomb was located in abydos.
Memnon See colossi of memnon.
Memphis This was the capital of ancient Egypt from the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.), continuing as a seat of political power even when the rulers maintained a capital in another area of the nation. called Hiku-Ptah, or Hat-Ka-Ptah, “the Mansion of the Soul of PTAH,” Memphis was located on the western side of the Nile, south of modern Cairo. The first capital of the first nome of Lower Egypt, Memphis was supposedly founded by AHA (Menes; 2920 b. c.e.). Legends state that this ruler altered the course of the Nile in order to clear the plain for his capital. This plain, on the western side of the Nile, was some four miles wide, and its western end sloped upward to the cliffs of the LIBYAN desert. The distinctive white walls of the capital were made of mud bricks overlaid with plaster and then painted. Memphis was thus called Ineb-hedj, “the White Walled.” The original site is now covered by the modern village of Badrasheen and covers an archaeological field of three square miles.
In some eras Memphis was called “Ankh-Tawy,” “the Life of the Two Lands.” When the capital of Egypt was officially founded at herakleopolis, it-tawy, thebes, or PER-RAMESSES in later historical periods, the affairs of state were conducted in part in Memphis, and most dynastic clans spent a portion of each year in residence there. The city remained great throughout the nation’s various eras.
The modern name derives from the period of the Sixth Dynasty in the Old Kingdom, when pepi i (r.
2289-2255 b. c.e.) built his beautiful pyramid in saq-QARA. That mortuary monument was called Men-nefer-Mare “the Established and Beautiful Pyramid of Men-nefer-Mare.” The name soon came to designate the surrounding area, including the city itself. It was called Men-nefer and then Menti. The Greeks, visiting the capital centuries later, translated the name as Memphis.
The temple of ptah once dominated the capital, but only the precinct walls of that structure can be seen today in modern MIT rahinah. There are also remains of shrines dating to seti i (r. 1306-1290 b. c.e.) of the Nineteenth Dynasty and ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.). meren-PTAH (r. 1224-1214 b. c.e.) also built on the site. The necropolis area of Memphis was divided into six sections, including Saqqara, with its remarkable tombs of the Archaic Period and the Old Kingdom and earlier.
The palace of apries (r. 589-570 b. c.e.) has been uncovered in Memphis and has enclosure walls and courts still visible. Other archaeological discoveries at the site include a hypostyle hall and pylons, an embalming house for apis bulls, elaborate figurines, the colossus of Ramesses II, and a temple. The Kom Fakhry necropolis of Memphis contains tombs from the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b. c.e.) and a Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.) settlement. The Persians ruled from Memphis during their historical period on the Nile (525-404 and 343-332 b. c.e.), and herodotus, the Greek historian, praised the beauty of the city when he visited it. Memphis declined when ALEXANDRIA was founded in 332 b. c.e.
Menat (1) A form of ancient Egyptian amulet heavily weighted and used to counterbalance the heavy collars worn by the rulers and members of the aristocracy, the menat was attached to the back of such collars to keep them in place. As an amulet the menat was painted or carved with spells, prayers, and divine images. Made of stone, FAIENCE, or metal, it was worn with strands of beads when not used as a counterbalance.
Menat (2) This was a fetish of virility, depicted on reliefs and statues of the god khons (1) and worn by Egyptians to foster fertility and health in women and virility in men. In this form the menat was fashioned out of glaze ware. The amulet was also placed in the mummy wrappings of the deceased in mortuary rituals.
Mendes It was an ancient cult center on the site of modern el-Simballewein at tell el-rub’a in the Delta, originally called Per-Ba’eb’djet. “The domain of the Ram Lord of ba’eb djet,” as Mendes was called in some eras, the city was also the capital of the sixteenth nome of Lower Egypt. A goddess, hat-mehit, was popular in Mendes and became the consort of Ba’eb-Djet. Their son was Harpocrates, a form of Horus. Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.) tombs at Mendes denote the age of the site. A granite shrine was erected at Mendes by amasis (r. 570-526 b. c.e.). There are Ramessid Period (1307- 1070 b. c.e.) ruins as well as Predynastic remains, indicating the continued occupation of Mendes. A cemetery of rams is present, and mastaba tombs are located on the site. Mendes excavations are uncovering a vast collection of ruined structures and artifacts.
Menes See aha.
Menet-Khufu The principal town of a region in the Oryx nome of Upper Egypt, associated with khufu (r. 2551-2528 b. c.e.), modern beni hasan is located nearby and is famed for its tombs. In ancient periods Menet-Khufu was called “the horizon of horus.”
Menhet (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Palace woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty, one of three Syrian sisters she was a lesser ranked consort or possibly a concubine of TUTHMOSIS III (1479-1425 b. c.e.). Menhet and her sisters, Merti and Menwi, were syrians, the daughters of a chief, given to Tuthmosis III as tribute or as part of political pacts. Menhet and her sisters were not buried in the VALLEY OF THE QUEENS but in an area called the Valley of the Monkeys, Wadi Gabbenet el-Kurrub. Each of the sisters received the same exquisite funerary regalia and ritual mortuary offerings to ensure equal honors in death.
Menkauhor (d. 2388 b. c.e.) Seventh ruler of the Fifth Dynasty
He reigned from 2396 b. c.e. until his death, succeeding NIUSERRE to the throne, and probably the son of Niuserre and Queen Khentikas. Menkauhor is recorded as having sent a mining expedition to the sinai, perhaps to prepare his burial site. No pyramid has been identified as his, but he was probably buried in dashur. A cult honoring Menkauhor was also conducted in saqqara for many centuries. He probably erected a sun temple in abusir.
Menkaure (Mycerinus) (d. 2472 b. c.e.) Fifth ruler of the Fourth Dynasty, the builder of the third pyramid at Giza The successor of khafre, Menkaure ruled from 2490 b. c.e. until his death, and was called Mycerinus by the Greeks. He was Khafre’s son, probably born to Queen KHAMERERNEBTY (2) or perhaps to Queen persenti. His sons were Ka’aure, Khuenre, the chosen heir who died young, and shepseskhaf, who succeeded him. His daughter was KHENTAKAWES (1). Shepseskhaf possibly completed Menkaure’s pyramid, the third one erected at giza, and it is known that he completed Menkaure’s mortuary temple. He was recorded as being “pious,” and his death was predicted by the oracle of buto.
His pyramid at Giza was designed smaller than the ones erected there by khufu and Khafre, but it was covered by costly ASWAN stone. A basalt sarcophagus was placed within the pyramid and contained fine panel decorations. Statues and other reliefs attest to the skill of the artisans of his historical period. In the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 b. c.e.) Menkaure’s remains were placed into a new wooden coffin. His basalt sarcophagus was taken to Europe, but it reportedly went down in a shipwreck off the coast of Spain.
Menkhaf (fl. 26th century b. c.e.) Princely vizier of the Fourth Dynasty
He was a son of khufu (Cheops; r. 2551-2528 b. c.e.) and a lesser ranked wife. Menkhaf served as a vizier for his father but was not the designated heir. He was part of that dynasty’s tradition of using only royal family members in positions of power or trust.
Menkheperresenb (1) (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Architect and priestly official of the Eighteenth Dynasty He served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) as the fourth prophet of amun and as a chief architect. He was also a nome aristocrat. Menkheperresenb was buried in KHOKHA on the western shore of thebes, and his tomb contained scenes of everyday Egyptian life, temple workshops, and a portrait of Tuthmosis iii. Menkheperresenb also controlled the royal residence at Thebes, called “the Gold and Silver Houses,” a designation symbolizing the union of Upper and Lower Egypt under the pharaoh.
Menkheperresenb (2) (fl. 11th century b. c.e.) High priest of Amun at Thebes in the Twenty-first Dynasty He served in this priestly capacity during the reign of PSUSENNES I (1040-992 b. c.e.). Menkheperresenb was the son of PINUDJEM (1) and Queen henuttawy and the brother of Djedkhonsufankh. When his brother died, Menkheperresenb succeeded him in the temple office. He married Psusennes’s daughter, istemkhebe (3), who bore a daughter of the same name, as well as psusennes ii, pin-UDJEM (2), and smendes ii.
Unlike other members of his family, Menkheperre-senb served as high priest of amun without assuming royal ceremonies and attire, but he did have his name recorded in a cartouche, a royal insignia. Menkheperresenb made his base of operations at el-HiBA and put down Theban revolts efficiently, exiling the leaders of these rebellions to the oases of the Libyan desert. He died in the last year of reign of psusennes i and was buried in THEBES.
Menna (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Treasury official of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He served tuthmosis iv (r. 1401-1391 b. c.e.) as a tax collector, estate inspector, and harvest collector. Menna was attached to the temple’s assessment programs, visiting the various agricultural regions and tallying crops and tithes.
His mortuary stela portrays him in the course of his duties. His tomb on the west bank of Thebes, at sheikh abd’ el-qurna, depicts his activities, including directing the punishment of errant officials who tried to avoid the tithes or duties imposed by the crown. His wife and daughter are portrayed as well in beautiful rural settings.
Menouthis This is a sunken city on the northern coast of Egypt, rediscovered with the cities of canopus and Heraklion by divers. Menouthis was the wife of Canopus, a military aide of the Spartan king Menelaos, and was honored by having the city named after her. canopus had visited Heraklion with Menelaos. He was stung by a viper while on this tour and died. herodotus, the Greek historian who visited Egypt c. 450 b. c.e., wrote about the cities and their naming.
When the city of Alexandria was founded by ALEXANDER III THE GREAT (r. 332-323 B. C.E.) in 331 B. C.E., as the new capital of Egypt, Heraklion lost its economic base. An earthquake and tidal wave destroyed all three cities sometime during the seventh or eighth century C. E. Statues, city grids, remains of temples, and tributes to the deities ISIS, OSIRIS, and serapis are being recovered from Menouthis and the other sunken sites. Heraklion’s remains are about four miles out at sea from the bay of Abu Qir, and artifacts and magnificent carved pieces are being lifted from their watery resting places. An elaborate museum area is planned by the Egyptian government to safeguard the relics being rescued from these ancient sites.
Mentjuhotep (c. 16th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Seventeenth Dynasty
She was a consort of Senakhtenre ta’o i (date of reign unknown). Mentjuhotep was buried at dra-abu el-naga in THEBES. Ta’o I ruled Thebes and most of Upper Egypt, while the Hyksos were in control of the northern domains. Ta’o ii would begin the crusade to force the HYKSOS out of the Nile Valley Mentjuhotep was probably a lesser ranked consort, as tetisheri was the Great Wife of the reign.
Mentuemhat (fl. seventh century b. c.e.) “Prince of the City” of Thebes
He was the fourth prophet of Amun at thebes, called “the Prince of the City,” and serving taharqa (r. 690-664 b. c.e.), tanutamun (r. 664-657 b. c.e.), necho i (r. 672-664 b. c.e.), and psammetichus i (664-610 b. c.e.), also ruling a part of Egypt in his lifetime. Mentuemhat witnessed the rise and fall of the Nubian Dynasty and the Assyrian invasion of Egypt. assurbanipal, the Assyrian ruler, approved of Mentuemhat during his visit to Thebes as the conqueror of Egypt and allowed the Egyptian to remain in his position, impressed by the man’s intellect and power.
Mentuemhat, however, defected to Taharqa, who had been forced to flee from Egypt and was regrouping to regain control. When Psammetichus I founded the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, Mentuemhat acknowledged his sovereignty. He also sponsored Princess nitocris (2), the daughter of Psammetichus I, as the Divine Adoratrice of Amun or god’s wife of amun. He ruled from ASWAN to HERMOPOLIS MAGNA and had three wives.
A black granite bust of Mentuemhat was discovered at KARNAK, and a standing statue depicts him as a robust, powerful man. Other private monuments display a high degree of artistic skills in the period. His tomb was erected at asasif in Thebes. This burial site is a rock-cut complex with outer courts and pylons. A single sloping passage leads to an incomplete chamber. The tomb is beautifully painted and the burial chamber is at the bottom of a shaft. There is a sun court, as well as side chapels, a portico, and a stairway. The ceiling decorations depict astronomical designs. Mentuemhat also erected a MORTUARY TEMPLE, with the separate chambers using differing style of decorations.
Mentuemzaf (Djed’ankhre) (fl. 17th or 18th century B. C.E.) Ruler of the Thirteenth Dynasty The actual dates of his reign are unknown. A monument honoring Mentuemzaf was discovered at deir el-bahri, opposite Thebes. His son resided apparently at avaris, the seat of the growing power of the hyksos, or Asiatics, who were consolidating their hold on the eastern Delta. A second monument of Mentuemzaf was found in gebelein.
Menwi See menhet.
Menyu A god of ancient Egypt, called “the Lord of the Desert,” Menyu was believed to be the son of ISIS and was revered in koptos, worshiped as Neb-Semt, or desert deity. He was depicted in some periods as a warrior bull god. Menyu was also a deity of regeneration. He is listed on the PALERMO stone.
Menzala This is a lake in the Delta region of ancient Egypt. The lake is located near the Damietta branch of the Nile. Menzala is one of the few remaining bodies of water in the Delta, where the Nile had seven separate branches and the water levels of the lakes were higher.
Mereneith See merneith.
Merenptah (Baenre’hotepirma’at) (d. 1214 b. c.e.) Fourth ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty He reigned from 1224 b. c.e. until his death. Merenptah was the son of ramesses ii and Queen isetnofret (1). He was actually the 13th son designated as the royal heir. His older brothers died before they could receive the throne from their long reigning father (1290-1224 b. c.e.). Active militarily while a prince, Merenptah was apparently in his 50s when he became pharaoh.
A KARNAK inscription and the athribis stela give accounts of the difficulties he faced upon taking the throne. The Cairo Column also adds details. Merenptah faced a combined force of Libyans, Libu, Tekenu, and MESHWESH in the fifth year of his reign in the western Delta and defeated them. He then met the Libyans and a contingent of sea peoples, including the meshwesh, Kehek, Sherden, Shekelesh, Lukka, Tursha, and Aka-washa, repelling them. A major battle was fought at Per-yer in the Delta and then at “the Mount of the Horns of the Earth” in the Libyan Desert. Mauroy, a Libyan leader, fell in this battle, as Merenptah used chariots, infantry units, and archers to repel the enemy. More than 6,000 of the enemy died, and their families were taken captive.
Merenptah’s chief consorts were isetnofret (2) and TAKHAT (1). His sons were seti ii and probably amen-MESSES. He built a royal residence at Memphis and restored temples elsewhere. He also aided the hittites, who were suffering from a severe famine. seti ii was made coruler before Merenptah died, probably in his early 70s. At his death he was corpulent, bald, and standing five feet seven inches tall. His tomb in the valley of THE KINGS on the western shore of thebes was designed with five corridors and contained halls, side chambers, and annexes. This highly decorated tomb held a sarcophagus of red granite. The lid of the sarcophagus depicted the book of the gates, a mortuary document. Another alabaster sarcophagus was also discovered on the site. The tomb had a trench dug in front of it to protect it from seasonal floods.
The mummy of Merenptah was found in the royal mummy cache in the tomb of amenhotep ii in 1898. Merenptah suffered from arthritis and calcification of the arteries. He had severe dental problems and evidence of prior fractures of the thigh bones. Merenptah’s mummy was encrusted with salty nodules, probably caused by the embalming process.
Merenre I (Nemtyemzaf) (d. 2246 b. c.e.) Third ruler of the Sixth Dynasty
He reigned from 2255 b. c.e. until his death. Merenre was the son of pepi i and Queen ankhnesmery-re (1). His wife was Queen neith (2) or Nit, who married pepi ii, and his daughter was ipwet. Merenre i ruled only nine years, and he built a pyramid in saqqara but never finished the site. Merenre I also exploited the mines of sinai, the quarries of NUBIA (modern Sudan), and the mines of ASWAN and HATNUB, and he visited elephantine Island at ASWAN, appointing a governor for the region. He maintained as well the services of General weni, who had been an official in the reign of Pepi I.
The Egyptians controlled the Nile down to the third cataract during Merenre I’s reign. He cut five canals at the cataracts of the Nile and commissioned the local Nubians (modern Sudanese) to build ships for him out of timbers. A copper statue of Merenre I and Pepi I was found in HIERAKONPOLIS. A mummified body was discovered at Saqqara, but it was probably not his remains but evidence of a later burial. He was succeeded by his half brother, Pepi II.
Merenre (II) (Antiemdjaf) (fl. 22nd century b. c.e.) Shadowy ruler of the Sixth Dynasty
He was reportedly the son of pepi ii (r. 2246-2152 b. c.e.) and Queen neith (2). Merenre II was devoted to a local deity, anti. He ruled only one year at the close of the dynasty with his consort, Queen nitocris (1), as the dynasty was threatened by general unrest and the ambitions of powerful nomarchs who sought independence for their clans. When he died, Nitocris ruled alone. She is mentioned in the TURIN canon. Her successor was possibly NEFERKURE, the son of Queen ankhnes-pepi and Pepi II.
Mereruka (fl. 23rd century b. c.e.) Chief justice and vizier of the Sixth Dynasty
He served teti (r. 2323-2291 b. c.e.) as vizier, chief justice, and the supervisor of Teti’s cult personnel. The son of the noble Nedjetempet, Mereruka married Princess SESHESHET, also called Idut. She was Teti’s daughter. His son was Meryteti. Mereruka constructed the royal tomb of Teti as part of his duties as vizier.
Mereruka’s own tomb in SAQQARA is a magnificent monument, shared by his royal wife and son. The tomb contains more than 30 chambers and was designed as a vast mastaba. A false door and a chapel with six pillars, including a statue of Mereruka, are part of the splendid architectural elements of the mastaba. There are painted scenes in corridors and in three of the chambers. A SERDAB was also part of the design. Scenes of gardening, fishing, fowling, hunting, harp playing, scribes, banquets, pets, and dwarves provide historical data of the period.
Meresger (1) (Meretseger) A cobra goddess of ancient Egypt’s Theban necropolis, also called Meretseger, she was worshiped as “the Lady of Heaven” and the “Peak of the West” in Egyptian religious texts. Meresger was noted as a goddess who chastised the evildoer. The Egyptians depicted her as a “Savage Lion” to all who performed sinful acts until they called upon her name for forgiveness. The goddess lived on the rocky spur of SHEIKH abd’ el-qurna, at the necropolis site of thebes, where she was called “the Lover of Silence,” an allusion to her mortuary role. She was popular throughout many eras of Egyptian history but declined in the Twenty-first Dynasty (1070-945 b. c.e.).
Meresger (2) (fl. 19th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
She was a lesser ranked consort of senwosret iii (r. 1878-1841 B. C.E.), a ruler noted for his extensive harem. Meresger was not the mother of the heir.
Meri (fl. 20th century b. c.e.) Royal pyramid complex official of the Twelfth Dynasty at el-Lisht He served senwosret i (r. 1971-1926 b. c.e.). Meri was the supervisor of the ruler’s pyramid in el-LiSHT, overseeing the construction of the mortuary complex. He also governed the pyramid territory His funerary stela, now in the Louvre in Paris, gives an account of his career and honors. The pyramidal complexes of the rulers demanded considerable attention and personnel. Small cities were erected at these sites to provide residences for priests and other attendants involved in the mortuary cults of the dead rulers, such cults lasting for decades, even centuries.
Merikare (fl. 22nd century b. c.e.) Ruler of the Herak-leopolitan Ninth Dynasty (2134-? b. c.e.)
He was probably the son of khety iii. The INSTRUCTIONS FOR MERIKARE, a didactic document attributed by scholars to his father, was written for him reportedly, although the authorship has not been proven. The text concerns the events of Khety Ill’s reign, a period in which the Iny-otefs were beginning their assaults on the Herakleopoli-tans. Khety III regrets many events that took place, and he speaks of the ideals and the spirit that the rulers and subjects should adopt in order to attain spiritual maturity.
Merikare appears to have been middle-aged when Khety bequeathed him the Herakleopolitan throne. He faced growing tensions with thebes in an uncertain political era of change, but he died before the armies of mon-TUHOTEP II advanced upon his capital. ity was his successor. Merikare’s mortuary pyramid was constructed near Memphis.
Merimda Beni Salama This is a predynastic site in the western Delta of Egypt, dating to c. 4750 b. c.e., the first known settlement in the Nile Valley. Located 15 miles northwest of modern cairo, Merimda had an estimated population of 16,000 in some historical periods, although the average was probably smaller. Graves found in the site contained mostly children, possibly the victims of a famine or an epidemic. Houses at Merimda were mostly windbreaks, or pole-framed structures with pitched roofs. Granaries and grid street patterns are evident. The Faiyum A culture pottery was discovered there, as well as stone maceheads, polished black pottery, and fishing tools. The Merimda phase was contemporaneous with Upper Egypt’s Badarian and Amratian phases.
See also EGYPT.
Merit (1) (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Noblewoman of the Eighteenth Dynasty
She was the wife of maya, the treasurer for tut’ankhamun (r. 1333-1323 b. c.e.) and horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b. c.e.). Maya protected the tomb of Tut’ankhamun when Horemhab set about destroying the surviving monuments of AKHENATEN (r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.) and the ’amarna Period. Also called Maia in some records, he built an elaborate tomb in saqqara. Merit is depicted in exquisite reliefs in the tomb with Maya, and the artistic splendor of her portraits and other scenes symbolize the high degree of skill evident in that period of Egyptian history.
Merit (2) She was an Egyptian divine being, called “the Goddess of the Inundation.” Egypt was named Ta-Mera, or Ta-Merit, “the Land of the Inundation.” style of that time and was surrounded by 41 other gravesites. These Egyptians, including artisans and craftsmen, possibly died as part of her mortuary ceremonies. Merneith died in the reign of Den. A stela erected in her honor depicts her name entwined with the SEREKH (2) symbol, normally reserved for pharaohs. Merneith’s coffin bore similar royal insignias. Her Abydos tomb was a brick lined pit with a wooden floor. Some 77 additional graves were discovered nearby. Her Saqqara tomb contained a boat pit.
Merneith (2) (fl. 28th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the First Dynasty
Merneith was the consort of den (date of reign unknown). She was probably his sister, born to Queen MERNEITH (1) and DJET.
Meritites (1) (fl. 26th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Fourth Dynasty
A consort of khufu (Cheops; r. 2551-2528 b. c.e.), Meritites was the mother of Prince kewab and Princess het-EPHERES (2), Princess merysankh (2), and Princess DJEDEFHOR and BAUFRE. She was buried in giza. The royal family of Khufu was divided between two factions, and Meritites’ son Kewab, who was the rightful heir, was killed in a questionable manner. His successor represented the opposing side of the family and did not manage to keep the throne for long or to raise his own sons as heirs.
Meritites (2) (fl. 23rd century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Sixth Dynasty
She was the daughter probably of pepi i (r. 2289-2255
B. c. e.). a small step pyramid, recording her as a queen, was discovered in saqqara. It is recorded that Meritites’ pyramid became a pilgrimage site after her death.
Merkhet This was an astral gauge used by the ancient Egyptians for architectural surveys and construction projects. Much like the modern plumb line, the merkhet provided relatively accurate measurements, something required for the construction of massive monuments that not only had to be based on secure foundations but were positioned according to astronomical configurations deemed appropriate.
Merneith (1) (Merynit, Mereneith, Meryneith) (fl.
C. 29th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the First Dynasty She was the consort of djet or Wadji (date of reign unknown). Merneith was the mother of den, and clay seals bear her name as “the King’s Mother.” She served as regent for her son, who obviously inherited the throne before reaching his majority. Merneith’s mortuary complexes at ABYDOS and saqqara attest to her rank as a ruler in that period. The Abydos tomb follows the pharaonic
Meroe A site on the eastern bank of the Nile in nubia (modern Sudan), north of modern Kabushiyah, it contains royal remains and unique monuments dating to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (712-657 b. c.e.) and other historical periods. In the fifth century b. c.e., the great Kushite Empire was seated in Meroe. Vital and energetic, the people of Meroe remained powerful even in the Greco-Roman Period on the Nile. The necropolis of Meroe, Begarawiga, was filled with Kushite pyramids and royal burials. A temple to ISIS dates to the Napatan Period (c. 1000-300 b. c.e.) at Meroe, and lavish palaces were erected there as well. A temple of amun was built in the second century b. c.e., as well as a temple of apedemak, a Nubian lion deity
Suggested Reading: Priese, Karl-Heinz. The Gold of Meroe. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1993.
Mersa Matruh This was a site 185 miles west of ALEXANDRIA that served as a port of entry into Egypt. Pilgrims arriving to visit the oasis of SIWA during the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.) used the port and erected a city called Ammonia (later called Paraetonium). Modern Bates Island served as another trading port in the area. Siwa Oasis, called also Jupiter Ammon, was well known throughout the Mediterranean region, and many came from distant lands to worship amun in that vast desert site.
Merti See merrhet.
Meryamen (fl. 12th century b. c.e.) Prince of the Twentieth Dynasty
A son of RAMESSES III (r. 1194-1163 b. c.e.), he was depicted as a “Fan-bearer,” in reliefs, apparently not holding any other known official position. Meryamen was also portrayed on the walls of medinet habu with 19 of his brothers, listed there as Ramesses-Meryamen.
Meryatum (1) (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Nineteenth Dynasty
Meryatum was the daughter of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) and Queen nefertari. She is depicted with her parents at the Queen’s Temple at ABU simbel.
Meryatum (2) (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Royal priest of Re of the Nineteenth Dynasty
The sixteenth son of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) and NEFERTARI, he served as the high priest of re at HELIOPOLIS. Prince Meryatum is depicted at the Queen’s Temple at ABU simbel, and the temple of nut at karnak bears his name. Meryatum officially visited the Egyptian turquoise mining operations in the sinai.
Meryatum (3) (fl. 12th century b. c.e.) Royal priest of Re of the Twentieth Dynasty
The son of ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b. c.e.), he served as the high priest of re at Heliopolis. Meryatum outlived his father and was possibly buried at el-MATARRiYAH necropolis, in modern cairo.
Meryet (1) (Merit, Mereret) (fl. 19th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty She was the consort of senwosret iii (r. 1878-1841 b. c.e.). Meryet was buried in the mortuary complex of Senwosret III at dashur.
Meryet (2) (fl. 19th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
She was a consort of amenemhet ii (r. 1929-1892 b. c.e.). Little is known of her, as she was a lesser-ranked queen.
Merymose (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Viceroy of the Eighteenth Dynasty, called the “King’s Son of Kush”
Serving amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.), he was the VICEROY of Kush, or the governor of nubia (modern Sudan). Merymose was responsible for trade routes and fortifications of the Egyptians south of Aswan. The region of Nubia was highly active during Merymose’s term of office as the “King’s Son of Kush,” and he had to maintain garrisoned stations and navigable waterways along the Nile. His tomb at thebes contained outstanding statuary.
Merynenefer (Qar) (fl. c. 23rd century b. c.e.) Official of the pyramidal complexes of the Sixth Dynasty He was the overseer of the pyramidal complexes of KHUFU (Cheops) and menkaure (Mycerinus). Merynenefer was also a tenant of the pyramid complex of pepi i and the inspector of priests in the pyramid of khafre (Che-phren). He served in several reigns. His tomb in giza is elaborate, with two false doors and decorations. A portico displays pillars carved as the likenesses of Merynene-fer, and there are statues of the deceased and his son and other male relatives. IDU, Merynenefer’s father, was buried in an adjoining tomb in abusir. He was the overseer of priests in the pyramidal complexes of Khufu and also Khafre (r. 2520-2494 b. c.e.). Elaborate paintings beautify this gravesite.
Meryptah (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Official of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Meryptah served amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.) as a royal treasurer. He was buried at thebes and was honored for his faithful service to the nation.
Meryre (1) (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Priestly official of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He served akhenaten (Amenhotep IV; r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.) at ’amarna as the high priest of aten. Meryre held the position of the Great seer of Aten when Akhenaten decided to share his powers with others near the end of his reign. Akhenaten’s death resulted in the abandonment of ’Amarna and the end of Aten’s cult. Meryre and his wife, Tener, disappeared and their beautifully adorned tomb at ’Amarna remained unfinished. Meryre reportedly was buried somewhere in ’Amarna, probably deposited in a secret cache in order to preserve his remains from the agents of horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b. c.e.).
Many of the ’Amarna officials made arrangements to have their remains hidden when they died, as they witnessed the destruction turned loose on Akhenaten’s capital after his death. The unused tomb of Meryre depicts him receiving decorations from the pharaoh and visiting Aten’s temple. The paintings at this site record events and personalities of the ’Amarna Period and display the vivacious artistic styles of the era.
Meryre (2) (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Official of the Eighteenth Dynasty at ’Amarna
He served akhenaten (Amenhotep IV; r. 1353-1335 b. c.e.) as superintendent of Queen nefertiti’s royal household. Meryre was the son of the high priest of aten, Meryre (1), and Tener. His unfinished tomb at ’Amarna depicts Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and smenkhare. Meryre (2) disappeared after Akhenaten’s death, probably hiding to avoid the vengeance of horemhab and other Amunites, who sought to obliterate all traces of the ’Amarna interlude. His burial site has not been identified.
Meryre (3) (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Prince of the Nineteenth Dynasty
He was the eleventh son of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.). Meryre is depicted in a luxor temple relief as part of Ramesses Il’s kadesh military campaign. He is shown leading prisoners during that encounter, which took place in Ramesses Il’s fifth regnal year.
Merysankh (1) (fl. 26th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Third Dynasty
She was a lesser consort of huni (r. 2599-2575 b. c.e.) and the mother of snefru, the founder of the Fourth Dynasty. Probably a commoner by birth, she was reportedly deified in later dynasties.
Merysankh (2) (fl. 26th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Fourth Dynasty
A daughter of khufu (r. 2551-2528 b. c.e.) and Queen MERITITES (1), Merysankh’s life is not detailed.
Merysankh (3) (Meresankh, Mersyankh) (fl. 26th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Fourth Dynasty Merysankh was the daughter of Prince kewab and Queen HETEPHERES (2) and granddaughter of khufu and Queen MERITITES (1). She was the consort of khafre (Chephren; r. 2520-2494 b. c.e.). Merysankh was called “the King’s Beloved Wife,” “the Mistress of dendereh,” “the Priestess of Bapefy,” “the Priestess of thoth,” and “the Priestess of HATHOR.” She inherited Prince Kewab’s estate when he died in mysterious circumstances and was at court when her mother, Hetepheres (2), married ra’djedef (r. 25282520 b. c.e.). Marrying Khafre, Ra’djedef’s successor, Merysankh became the mother of Prince Nebemakhet, Prince Khenterka, Prince Duwanera, and Princess Shep-setkau, along with other children.
She died suddenly in the reign of menkaure (2490-2472 b. c.e.), and her mother gave her the magnificent GIZA tomb that she had prepared for her own use. The MASTABA at Giza’s eastern cemetery has a subterranean rock-cut chapel, a main chamber, false doors, and a shaft. Statues and reliefs within the tomb depict the royal family Merysankh’s embalming process was recorded as lasting a record 272 days. Her son Prince NEBEMAKHET is among those portrayed in reliefs.
Meryt-Amun (1) (Meryt-Aten) (fl. 14th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty She was the wife of smenkhare (r. 1335-1333 b. c.e.). Meryt-Amun was the daughter of akhenaten (Amen-hotep IV) and Queen nefertiti. When Nefertiti left Akhenaten’s palace in ’amarna and took up residence in her own mansion, Meryt-Amun became queen in her place, even though she was married to Smenkhare. The death of Akhenaten in 1335 b. c.e. brought about Smenkhare’s coronation. He had been Akhenaten’s attendant for two years and had assumed many administrative duties.
Smenkhare and Meryt-Amun returned to thebes to placate the priests of amun and the military faction led by General horemhab. She was the mother of Merytaten-Tasherit and Merytaten the Younger. She died before Smenkhare.
Meryt-Amun (2) (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty
She was a daughter of tuthmosis iii and a consort of AMENHOTEP II (r. 1427-1401 b. c.e.). Meryt-Amun died at age 50 and was depicted as delicate, with brown wavy hair. She was buried at deir el-bahri in two coffins, one fashioned out of cedar. pinudjem (1), the high priest of AMUN in the Twenty-first Dynasty, usurped Meryt-Amun’s tomb for his daughter, Princess Entiu-nywas.
Meryt-Amun (3) (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Nineteenth Dynasty
She was the eldest daughter of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) and Queen nefertari. When Nefertari died or retired to the harem palace near the faiyum, Meryt-Amun became a queen, ranking second to bint-anath, her sister. A statue of Meryt-Amun, colossal in size and beautifully made, was unearthed recently at akhmin. The lips of the statue have retained the original red paint.
Meryt-Atum (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Prince of the Nineteenth Dynasty
The son of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) and Queen nefertari, he became the high priest of Re in Heliopolis. Meryt-Atum was depicted in reliefs as campaigning with Ramesses II in the sinai.
Meryt-Re-Hatshepsut (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty
She was the consort of tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.). Possibly the daughter of the God’s Wife, Huy, Meryt-Re-Hatshepsut was not the first “Great Wife,” having been preceded by two others. She was, however, the mother of the heir, amenhotep ii. Meryt-Re-Hatshepsut outlived Tuthmosis iii and was honored in her son’s reign. She was buried at thebes, in the valley of the QUEENS. The tomb designated as hers, however, does not appear to have been used. A quartzite, unfinished sarcophagus was found in that tomb. She was also the mother of meryt-amun (2) and Nebetiunet.
Meseket It was a sacred bark used by the god re in his nightly descent from the heavens. Re rode on the mandet in the morning to ascend into the sky on his appointed rounds. These sacred barks were accompanied by other divine beings and by the deceased souls who were not deemed worthy of eternal paradise but were allowed to survive in eternity in the retinues of the gods.
See also barks of the gods.
Mesentiu The name of an ancient Egyptian group that originated in edfu, a site south of thebes, in Upper Egypt. The Mesentiu are featured in early accounts of the unification of the nation. They are part of “the Sons of
HORUS.” The Mesentiu were reportedly skilled in metallurgy and battle.
Mesenty This was an ancient Egyptian term that meant “the Lord of All Creation.” Most cults assumed that title for their particular deities as part of the cosmogonic traditions fostered in the various cults, including amun and RE. From the earliest historical periods, however, ptah was the true mesenty.
Meska This was a sacred symbol, fashioned out of the hide of a bull and used as part of the costume of NOMARCHS and some pharaohs. The term “Bull of his Mother” was sometimes attached to the royal titles in ceremonies. The meska was a symbol of power and rebirth, as bulls were popular theophanies of the gods.
World History
