Funerary inscriptions offer a fascinating glimpse into the lives of ordinary Romans. Whereas most tombstones today include only a simple epitaph usually consisting of the name of the deceased and his or her years of birth and death, Romans sometimes commissioned highly personalized funerary inscriptions. If written by a relative, it might describe the deceased person's life, his or her personality, or even recall specific events in his or her life. If drafted by a person before his or her death, the text might feature bits of personal philosophy or a message that he or she wished to leave for posterity. Roman tombstones often included a wealth of other information as well, such as the person's profession, the cause of death, offices held, and lists of other family members. Collectively, these funerary inscriptions preserve data about the lives, achievements, and aspirations of ordinary Romans that otherwise would be lost to history.
Those people whose funerary inscriptions have survived span a broad spectrum of Roman society, from the most powerful aristocrats to humble artisans. Thus we can read the epitaph of a member of the illustrious Scipio family who had been elected to the highest offices in the government and had conducted successful military campaigns: "All will agree that Lucius Scipio was the very best of Romans. He served as aedile, consul, and censor. He captured Corsica and the city of Aleria. He built a temple to the goddess of Weather" (CIL 1.7), but we can also learn of simple craftsmen such as "Gaius Atilius, son of Gaius, cobbler of soldier's boots" {ILS 7545), merchants such as "Lucius Cluvius, freedman of Lucius, olive oil dealer from the Carinae district" (ILS 7491), or even slaves such as "Zeuthus, barber and slave of Aulus Plantius" (ILS 7414).
Some inscriptions succinctly summarize the entire life story of the deceased, which at times can be quite dramatic: "Gaius Julius Mygdonius, born a free man in Parthia, was captured in his youth and sold as a slave in Roman territory. Once I became a freedman and a Roman citizen, thanks to kind Fate, I saved up a nest egg for when I reached fifty. Ever since my youth I have been traveling toward old age, so now, O gravestone, receive me willingly. In your care I will be released from my worries" (CIL 11.137). In a few brief sentences, this man's colorful life, during which he passed from freedom, to slavery, to freedom, and to ultimate prosperity, is memorialized.
Some tombstones preserve the careers of public entertainers such as gladiators. One reads, "To the departed spirit of Marcus Antonius Niger, veteran gladiator of the Thracian style. He lived 38 years and fought 18 times. Flavia Diogenis paid for this monument to be made for her welldeserving husband" (ILS 5090). Another epitaph records a tragic story of a child who raced chariots but apparently died in a crash: "1, who rest here, was named Florus. I was a child charioteer who wanted to race swiftly, but was even more swiftly overtaken by death. lanurius put up this monument to his dear adopted son" (ILS 5300). Another aspiring charioteer had his career cut short by disease, as described on his tombstone: "To the spirits of the departed. Here is Eutyches, charioteer, 22 years old. In this grave rest the bones of a novice charioteer, who nevertheless knew how to handle the reins. Glory in the circus was not granted to me. Disease burned away my body, and the doctors could not cure it. Please, traveler, sprinkle Flowers on my grave. Perhaps you were a fan of mine when I lived" (Sherk, Roman Empire 168).
Funerary inscriptions reveal that many w'omen worked, among them a number who were doctors; "Here lies Secunda, physician and slave of Livilla" {ILS 7803), and "To the departed spirit of Julia Saturnina, 45 years of age, wonderful wife, excellent physician, most blameless woman. Erected by her husband Cassius Philippus out of gratitude. She lies here and may the earth rest lightly upon her" {ILS 7802). Other interesting professions mentioned on women's tombstones include scribe: "To Hapate, short-hand writer of Greek. She lived 25 years. Pittosus erected this monument to his most affectionate wife" {ILS 7760); merchant: "Thymele, Marcella's dealer in silk" {ILS 7600); and actress: "Turia Privata, actress in mimes, lived 19 years. Bleptus made this monument" {ILS 5215).
The epitaphs of men also illustrate an enormous variety of jobs, from humble laborers such as "Publius Marcius Philodamus, construction worker, freedman of Publius" {CIL 9.1721) fo those with more specialized jobs: "Here lie the bones of Quinfus Tiburtinus Menolavus, freedman of Quintus, who made a living slaughtering animals for sacrifices" {CIL 1.2.1604). Some men plainly took great pride in their jobs, as in the case of a teacher whose epitaph states, "Having left the famous city of Bithynia Nikaia as a young man, I came to the land of the Italians, and in the sacred city of Rome I taught mathematics and geometry. This is the monument that I, Basileus, made, having paid for the work by making a living with my mind" {IGUR 1176).
One aspect of life that tombstones bring to light is the strong emotions that tied together spouses, family members, or friends. One inscripfion, for example, testifies to a particularly close friendship between two men that began when both were slaves and continued even after both achieved freedom: "Aulus Memmius Urbanus erected this memorial for his very dear friend and fellow freedman, Aulus Memmius Clarus. The two of us never argued and I held you in the highest regard. By this memorial, I call upon the gods of heaven and the underworld to witness that you and I were sold as slaves at the same time, we became freedmen at the same time in the same household, and that nothing has ever separated us, until the day that death took you" {CIL 6.22355a).
One grave marker records a husband's grief for his young wife: "To the eternal memory of Blandina Martiola, a most blameless girl, who lived eighteen years, nine months, five days. Pompeius Catussa, a Sequanian citizen and a plasterer, dedicates this monument to his wife, who was incomparable and very kind to him. She lived with him five years, six months, eighteen days without any shadow of a fault. You who read this, go bathe in the baths of Apollo as I used to do with my wife. I wish I still could" {CIL 1.1983). In addition to the touching detail about the couple's favorite baths, this inscription also illustrates the early ages at which some women were married, since the couple had apparently lived together
Figure 6.6 Funerary monument of a Roman man, his wife, and their child.
Since she was only 13, Another tombstone commemorates a woman who was married at an even younger age: "When alive, my name was Aurelis Philematium. I was chaste and modest, unsoiled by the common crowd, and faithful to my husband. My husband whom I have now left was a fellow freed man and was truly like a father to me. We were married when 1 was seven. Now 1 am forty and death has me. Through my constant care, my husband flourished" (C/L 1.2.1221).
Another inscription expressing deep affection reads, "Erected by Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman of Lucius, a butcher on the Viminal hill. She who preceded me in death was my one and only wife. She was chaste in body with a loving spirit. She lived faithful to her devoted husband and was always optimistic. Even in bitter times, she never shirked her duties" (C/L 1.2.1221). One poignant epitaph preserves the history of a love that was cut short: "Furia Spes, freedwoman of Sempronius Firmus, provided this memorial for her dearly beloved husband. When we were still boy and girl, we were bound by mutual love as soon as we met. I lived with him for too brief a time. We were separated by a cruel hand when we should have continued to live in happiness, 1 therefore beg you, spirits of the dead, that you look after the loved one I have entrusted to you and that you be well disposed and kind to him during the hours of night, so that I may see him, and so that he, too, may wish to persuade fate to allow me to come to him softly and soon" {CIL 6.18817).
While these funerary inscriptions emphasize the deep passion that existed between some couples, others are more restrained, although still listing qualities that one partner found congenial in the other. For example, one from Rome reads, "Fiere lies Amymone, wife of Marcus, most good and most beautiful, wool-spinner, dutiful, modest, careful, chaste, stay-at-home" (C7L 6.11602). Modesty and the ability to sew are common positive attributes ascribed to women by their husbands, as in the following inscription: "Stranger, my message is short. Stand and read it through. Here is the unlovely tomb of a lovely woman. Her parents named her Claudia. She loved her husband with all her heart. She bore two sons; of these, she leaves one above ground, but one has already been laid within the earth. She was charming in conversation and gentle in manner. She kept the house, and she spun wool. That is all there is to say. Go now" (CIL 1.1211).
The affection that some parents felt for their children is also reflected in these inscriptions. "Spirits who live in the underworld, lead innocent Magnilla through the groves and the Elysian fields directly to your places of resf. She was snatched away in her eighth year by cruel fate while she was still enjoying the tender time of childhood. She was beautiful and sensitive, clever, elegant, sweet, and charming beyond her years. This poor child who was deprived of her life so quickly must be mourned with perpetual lament and tears" (CIL 6.21846).
As a number of these tombstones have illustrated, there were often bonds of affection between masters and their former slaves, and some monuments were constructed to house both together: "Gaius Calpenius Hermes built this tomb for himself and his children and his freedmen and freedwomen and their children and for his wife, Anitistia Coetonis" (CIL 14.4827). One man who paid for his freedman's tomb went into detail about what he liked about his former slave: "To the spirits of the departed. Here lies Marcus Canuleius Zosimus. He lived 28 years. His patron erected this to a well deserving freedman. In his lifetime he never spoke ill of anyone, he did nothing without his patron's consent, there was always a great amount of my gold and silver in his possession, but he never stole any of it. He was a skilled master of Clodian engraving" (CIL 6.9222). Some masters, however, did not view their former slaves with such affection: "Marcus Aemilius Artema built this tomb for his honored brother Marcus Licinius Successus and for Caecilia Modesta his wife, and for himself and for his children and his freedmen and freedwomen and their descendants, with the exception of his freedman Hermes, whom he forbids, because of his ungrateful and obnoxious behavior, to approach, walk around, or come near to this tomb" (CIL 6.11027).
Some Romans seemed more concerned with ensuring that their bodies lay undisturbed in their graves after death than with recording their accomplishments while alive. An inscription of this type states, "Gaius Tullius Hesper had this tomb built for himself, as a place where his bones might be laid. If anyone damages them or removes them from here, may he live in great physical pain for a long time, and when he dies, may the gods of the underworld deny entrance to his spirit" (CIL 6.36467).
Graves were situated along the roads leading into cities, and some people chose to use their tombstones to give advice to travelers or simply to express their beliefs. One man erected a monument that declared, "To the spirits of the departed. Titus Flavius Martialis lies here. What I ate and drank is with me here, what I left behind is gone forever" {CIL 6.18131). An athlete included on his grave a reminder of the fleeting nature of life: "Passer-by, you see me now a corpse. My name was Apollonis. Eight times I won in athletic games, but in the ninth boxing match, I met my end. Passer-by, play and laugh, but know that in the end, you too must die" (Lewis and Reinhold, eds., Roman Civilization 284). A similarly pessimistic stone reads, "Do not walk by this epitaph, traveler, but stop, listen, learn, and then proceed. There is no boat in Hades, no ferryman Charon, no caretaker Aeacus, no dog Cerberus. All those who die become bones and ashes—nothing more. I speak the truth. Go now, traveler, lest even though I am dead, I seem to you long-winded" (CIL 6.14,672).
A number of remarkable stones do not even record the names of the deceased but instead offer comments that, after all, perhaps do preserve something of their author's temperament. One terse inscription states, "I was not. I was. I am not. I care not" {CIL 5.2893). Finally, a man who clearly enjoyed life left a tombstone that simply read, "Baths, wine, and sex ruin our bodies. But what makes life worth living except baths, wine, and sex?" .
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