Magadha Magadha was one of the 16 MAHAJANAPADAS, or great states, and was flourishing during the life of the Buddha. It was located in the vicinity of Patna, India, and comprised the kernel of the maurya and gupta empires.
Mahahharata The Mahabharata is an enormous compendium of myths, legends, and epic sagas compiled in India between approximately 500 b. c.e. and 400 c. e. It incorporates the legends surrounding the activities of siva and Vishnu and describes the mighty battle of kuruk-SHETRA between the forces of good and evil. It was employed as a rich source of themes depicted on the temple reliefs of the kingdom of angkor.
Mahajanapada The term mahajanapada is central to an understanding of the formation of states in northern India during the period 600-350 b. c.e.
The development of states in the Ganges (Ganga) Valley took place over a relatively short time span of about three centuries. It was based on the successful prosecution of agriculture and trade in association with intensive competition and warfare reflected in the presence of mud-BRiCK or, occasionally, fired-brick or stone defenses. The process culminated in the late fourth century b. c.e. with the emergence of the state of magadha, precursor to the maurya empire.
Before the establishment of the maurya empire in the fourth century b. c.e., northern India was divided into many small states, of which 16 were described as mahajanapadas. The four major states were Magadha, the ultimate victor in predatory wars; Kosala; Vatsa, under the Paurava dynasty; and Avanti, based at ujjain. Much of the information on the names and events concerning these kingdoms is from the Buddhist scriptures, which mention two mahajanapadas in the northwest of the Ganges Valley known as Kamboja and gandhara. Other mahajanapadas were Pancala, in the Ganges Valley; Vriji; Malla; Kasi; Kuru; Cedi; Surasena (with its capital at mathura) Matsya (southwest of Delhi); Asmaki (on the Godavari River); and Anga north of the Ganges Delta.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INFORMATION
There are two main sources of information: archaeological finds and the record contained in oral traditions when they were finally recorded in written form. Archaeologically, the most informative program of research has concentrated on the settlement patterns of the Allahabad district, just above the confluence of the Yamuna and Ganges Rivers. During the sixth and fifth centuries b. c.e. one site, kausambi, grew to cover an area of about 50 hectares (125 acres); other settlements fall into two groups by size: The secondary centers covered about six hectares (15 acres), and the small villages covered less than two hectares (5 acres). Large centers in this district and beyond were now equipped with large mud-brick fortifications, reflecting increased competition and warfare. From about 400 b. c.e. there were further fundamental changes, in which the population grew, and secondary centers expanded up to 30 hectares (66 acres). This was a period of agricultural expansion, involving forest clearance, marsh drainage, and the application of iron technology to increase production, particularly through the use of iron plowshares and animal traction. Rice grew in importance, but wheat, millet, and barley were also cultivated, while pigs, cattle, and horses were raised. Little is known of the internal layout of the early cities, because the relevant layers are usually stratified deep below historic remains. Early excavations at the site of bhita by sir John marshall, however, suggest that there were city gates, orderly streets lined with shops and houses, and a drainage system. This period is characterized by a style of pottery known as northern BLACK POLISHED WARE. It is widely distributed in the valley of the Ganges River, and relevant sites reveal widespread iron smelting, specialized copper and bead production, and bronze working.
ORAL TRADITIONS
The late Vedic and Buddhist oral traditions greatly expand on the rather thin archaeological record. Initially, there were many competing states (JANAPADAS). These were reduced through war and absorption into 16 maha-janapadas, then to four, and finally by 321 b. c.e. to the supreme state of Magadha. There are hereditary rulers known as rajyas, whose duties included the successful prosecution of warfare, protection of the populace, and adherence to moral law, the dharma. There was a growing bureaucracy within the court centers, including a chief minister, a purohita, or religious leader, and ministers. These states were sustained on the basis of a taxation system that involved levies on production, commercial transactions, and sales, while silver and copper COINAGE facilitated trade. The records also describe the cities as being populous, incorporating merchants and craft workshops. Descriptive terms like pura (city) and nagara (holy city) also enter the literature for the various types of major settlements.
Mahamuni The Mahamuni shrine is located in the Arakanese (now Rakhire) city of dhanyawadi in western Myanmar (Burma). It is one of the most revered holy places in Myanmar, because it was here that the statue of the Buddha, known as the Mahamuni (great sage), was located until the region was conquered and the image removed to Mandalay in 1784. According to tradition, the Buddha visited this region, and an image was cast in his likeness, the only such image known. Today it is impossible to identify the original form because devotees have covered it in so much gold. The shrine itself survives but has been the subject of much reconstruction. Some of the original sandstone guardian figures and bodhisattvas, dating to the fifth century C. E., have been restored there.
See also arakan.
Ma Hao Ma Hao is one of the earliest sites in China to provide evidence for the adoption of buddhism. It is located in Sichuan province, on the Min River, a tributary of the Chang (Yangtze). The Cave 9 tomb had a series of shafts cut into the hillside, decorated with carved panels. Many of these illustrate scenes from Chinese history, even dating back to the overthrow of the shang state (1766-1045 B. C.E.). One, placed in a prominent position, shows the Buddha in a seated position with a halo. This form of representation has its closest parallels, and in all probability its origin, in the depictions of the Buddha seen along the eastern sections of the silk road to the north.
Mahasena (274-301 c. e.) King Mahasena of Sri Lanka was responsible for the massive reservoir known as the Minneriya.
He was antagonistic to the monks of the Mahavihara Monastery, who dispersed under his reign.
Mahasthana Mahasthana is a city site in Bangladesh, which, according to a local inscription, was formerly known as Pundranagara. The text of the inscription refers to a storehouse for grain. The city was occupied during the period of the gupta empire (320-c. 500 c. e.) and held a temple to Vishnu and another to the Buddha.
Mahavira See nalanda.
Mahayana Buddhism The centuries following the attainment of nirvana by the Buddha saw the development of different schools of thought in the Buddhist congregation. one of the problems of early Buddhist doctrine, at least for the masses, was the strictly separate nature of the individual quest for nirvana. This did not readily attract a large following. As a consequence the Mahayanist school developed around the notion that the BODHISATTVA, the person on the path to nirvana, would forgo the final transition to help others in their quest. This had the effect of popularizing and secularizing buddhism so that followers could take the bodhisattva vow, which specified the aim of living a holy life and helping others. in this way, fulfillment of the vow replaced nirvana as the objective of the Mahayanist. Bodhisattvas themselves became objects of veneration and worship and were depicted as celestial beings. The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara was, for example, the exemplar of compassion, and Manjusri of wisdom.
This contrasts with the school of theravada buddhism, in which death for the enlightened automatically produces nirvana, and the god in the form of a bod-hisattva no longer has an existence. Consequently, in this school there were no benevolent bodhisattvas. This development provided for tricky theological dilemmas for Theravada Buddhists, because it meant that the Buddha himself attained nirvana while there were still countless creatures requiring the guidance of bodhisattvas. This was resolved by progressively identifying the truth, DHARMA, rather than nirvana, as the true goal. By a further philosophical avenue, the Buddha in the Mahayana school began to symbolize universal truth, whereas in the
Theravada school the Buddha remained the physical being who attained nirvana. Nagarjuna, who was active during the kushan period (78-200 C. E.), was one of the great early philosophers of Mahayana Buddhism. He is widely associated with the Buddhist center of learning at NALANDA and was responsible for the early formulation of the philosophical basis of the school; his most famous work is the Madhyamaka Karika.
Mahidharapura dynasty The founding dynasty of ANGKOR in Cambodia can be traced back to jayavarman ii, who established the kingdom when he was consecrated king of kings in 802 c. e. With the possible exception of the accession of suryavarman i in the early 11th century, this dynasty proved durable. In about 1080 C. E., however, there was a major dynastic change when jayavarman vi seized power. He was a member of the powerful regional family of Mahidharapura, whose base lay in the Mun valley of Thailand. His father had a royal title, and it is likely that the Mahidharapura dynasty had long exercised a form of local rule in the kingdom of Angkor. The dynasty provided two of the great kings of Angkor, suryavarman ii (r. c. 1002-49 C. E.), a warrior responsible for the construction of ANGKOR WAT, and JAYAVARMAN VII (r. 1181-1219 C. E.), who was by far the most energetic founder of temples, rest houses, hospitals, and roads in the history of the kingdom.
Mai zun The Mai zun is a bronze vessel dating to the reign of King Cheng (r. c. 1042-1006 b. c.e.) of the western ZHOU DYNASTY. A person called Mai, a retainer of the lord Xinghou Zhi, cast it. As do many other Western Zhou vessels, it incorporates a text explaining its origin. such texts often provide important insights into the history of the period. The inscription on this zun describes how the king appointed Xinghou Zhi to proceed to Xing, located north of the old Shang capital of anyang, to found a new colony. in this manner the early Western Zhou rulers enfeoffed relatives or loyal followers with land to form dependable provincial government. The text of the Mai zun describes the rituals attendant on this appointment and the lavish gifts bestowed on the appointee, including a horse harness, a robe, a dagger, ax, and even a pair of slippers. He was also accompanied by soldiers and 200 families to settle the new territory. This feudal system, however, ultimately held the seeds of the downfall of the Zhou, because with time the new provinces grew powerful in their own right and began to form independent states.
Majiayuan Majiayuan is a large urban center located near the confluence of the Chang (Yangtze) and Zhang Rivers in Hubei province, central China. It comprises a roughly rectangular walled enclosure covering about 20 hectares (50 acres). The walls are up to eight meters (26.4 ft.) wide at the base, and the moat, which lies beyond the stamped-earth walls, is 50 meters (165 ft.) wide in places. The site dates to the Qujialing and Shiji-ahe periods and is one of several that show an early development of complex urban societies in the middle Chang Valley during the third millennium b. c.e.
Majumdar, R. C. (1888-1980) Ramesh C. Majumdar was a prominent Indian historian who traveled widely in Southeast Asia.
His visits to the major cities there convinced him of their pervasive Indian influence, and he wrote several works, including Indian Colonies in the Far East, which proposed a large-scale movement of Indian people involved in the formation of southeast Asian civilization. This idea has now largely been discredited.
See also indianization.
Mancheng Mancheng, a city in Hebei province, northern China, has given its name to one of the most extraordinary finds in the history of Chinese archaeological exploration. In 1968, two rock-cut tombs were discovered intact. Excavations revealed that they contained the remains of Prince Liu sheng, son of Emperor jingdi (188-141 B. C.E.) and brother of the Han emperor WUDI (157-87 B. C.E.), and his wife, Dou Wan. This is the first and only burial of a Western HAN dynasty prince to be found intact. His tomb reached 52 meters (172 ft.) into the hillside and had a series of chambers up to 37 meters (122 ft.) wide, while that of his wife was of similar form but slightly larger in terms of volume of rock removed. The interior vaults, which reached up to seven meters in height, contained roofed chambers filled with the requirements of both aristocrats in the life after death. The most remarkable discovery in an excavation renowned as one of the richest recorded in China were the jade suits that contained the two bodies. jade was held to be an auspicious material to cover the body, because of the belief that it stopped decomposition. At a time when BO, that part of the dead person that remained on Earth, required an uncorrupted body in which to reside, it was considered vital to encase the body in jade. However, this was so demanding of labor that only the emperor and the highest echelon in the royal family were permitted such suits, their relative status displayed by the use of gold, silver, or bronze thread to stitch the jade wafers together. It has been estimated that the 2,690 pieces of jade and one kilogram (2.2 lbs.) of gold thread in Liu Sheng’s suit would have required 10 years for a skilled craftsperson to complete. There is a record of this mortuary custom in the text known as the Han jiuyi buyi, dating to the first century c. e., which states: “When the emperor died, a pearl was placed in his mouth; his body was wrapped around with twelve layers of reddish yellow silk. Jade was used to make the garment. It had the shape of armor and the jade pieces were stitched together with gold threads.” In an additional refinement, a much earlier jade cong, a sacred tube typical of the
LIANGZHU CULTURE, was reemployed to hold the prince’s genitals. Each bodily orifice was plugged with jade, and the royal head lay on a headrest of gilded bronze and jade, ornamented with dragons and feline, tigerlike creatures.
LIU SHENG’S TOMB
The tomb of Liu sheng, who died in about 113 B. C.E., was divided into chambers to contain the worldly belongings that befitted the life of a senior prince of the royal family. One chamber stabled his horses and contained his chariots. Another was set aside for the sealed containers for his food and wine. His fine bronze and lacquer serving dishes occupied a central hall, but his finest gold, silver, and jade vessels and ornaments were found in the rear mortuary room that included his body An exceptional pair of wine vessels was present, inlaid with gold figures incorporating written texts. These reflect the anticipation of a long and enjoyable life in eternity: “We desire longevity and the dispelling of disease. Even 10,000 years would not be too much.”
Liu sheng had the reputation of enjoying life, as befitting one whose wine vessels note that “fine food fills the gates to the bursting point. The more sustenance, the more we become fat and healthy” His jade suit reveals a corpulent frame, when compared with that of his wife.
DOU WAN’S TOMB
The tomb of his wife, Princess Dou Wan, also contained some of the finest artifacts to survive from the Western Han dynasty. Perhaps best known is a gilt lamp in the form of a palace maid. She holds the base of the lamp in her left hand, and her right hand acts as a conduit to take away the smoke from the flame. The light can be directed by a revolving mechanism. The texts on this lamp tell of its history: It probably once belonged to the dowager empress Dou, who resided in the Changxin palace. She may well have given it to the princess Dou Wan, a member of her own family It thus entered the Mancheng tomb as a treasured family heirloom.
Manda Manda is one of the most northerly of INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION sites in India. It is located on the right bank of the Chenab River. Excavations in 1977 revealed three cultural phases encompassing pre-Indus and Indus civilization material culture, dating between about 2350 and 1750 B. C.E., beneath a second occupation belonging to the period of the kushan empire (78-200 C. E.). Period 1 at the base of the site yielded pottery similar to that from early kalibangan, as well as an unfinished SEAL, bone arrowheads, and a copper pin.
Mandala Mandala is a word with several meanings. It is a magic or symbolic diagram used in Tantric buddhism, held to represent the universe and inspire meditation. It is also a division in the RIG-VEDA, which contains 10 mandalas. Its most widespread meaning refers to a group of kings and their relationships, whether hostile, friendly, or neutral. The term has more recently been used, not without controversy, to describe ephemeral early states in Southeast Asia.
See also chenla.
Mandate of Heaven The Mandate of Heaven, or tian-ming, was a concept advanced to provide legitimization to the overthrow of the shang state by the Zhou in 1045 B. C.E. The Mandate of Heaven was given considerable weight in the writings of Confucius and mencius, and this assisted in its long dominance of royal legitimization. According to sima qian, writing in the second century B. C.E., the last Shang king at Yin (anyang) followed a path of depravity and oppression. The ruler of Zhou led a successful revolt and assumed power. After centuries of shang authority, it was necessary to provide a charter to legitimize the new Zhou kings. Several later texts referring to this period described the principles of the Mandate of Heaven as articulated through the deeds and sayings of the early Zhou nobility The Classic of Documents (from the Western Zhou period, 1045-771 B. C.E.), for example, records that the Mandate of Heaven gave kings the authority to rule provided that they did so with regard for their people, showing concern, wisdom, and respect for the ancestors. If a ruler ignored these principles, then the mandate could be withdrawn and given to a more righteous lineage. It cites the precedent of King Tang of Shang, who overthrew the last XIA king when the latter lost the moral approval to govern. The text known as the METAL-BOUND COFFER (late fifth century B. C.E.) describes how Duke Zhou offered his own life to save that of the ailing king WU, the person who had received the Mandate of Heaven. This same duke in the Shaogao (Shao Announcement) declared during the foundation ceremonies for the new Zhao capital how vital it was for the young king to follow a righteous path to ensure that he and his descendants retained the mandate. The Classic of Odes likewise encourages the proper moral path for the ruler, but it warns also that “the Mandate is not easy to keep.”
Under the legalists and the centralizing power of the QIN dynasty, however, the mandate was ignored. With the Confucian revival under the HAN dynasty, the concept enjoyed a renaissance, particularly after 31 B. C.E. when tian, “heaven,” superseded DI, “god,” as the preferred object of devotion. This brought into focus the fact that emperors were the instruments of heaven and ruled under its mandate. Wang Mang adhered to the belief in holding the Mandate during his period of rule. The Book of Documents states that the emperor was the father and the mother of his people and king of all under heaven. The historian ban biao (3-54 c. e.) set out his view of the concept during the early years of the Eastern Han dynasty, noting that it harmonized with the five phases that were thought to determine the rhythms of the universe and was conferred only on those fit to conform to its requirements of humane and caring government. Thus the Eastern Han, in harmony with the five phases, claimed to rule under the aegis of fire, while their predecessors ruled under the phase of water until 104 b. c.e. and then under that of earth. The last emperor of the Han dynasty was observing the full force of the Mandate of Heaven when he sent the imperial seals to his successor, the first king of the new WEI dynasty, in 220 c. e.
Further reading: De Bary, W T., and I. Bloom, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Loewe, M. Divination, Mythology and Monarchy in Han China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994; Loewe, M., and E. L. Shaugnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999; Marshall, S. J. The Mandate of Heaven. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.
Manikiyala Manikiyala is a Buddhist site in the Punjab which was one of the first sites to be explored archaeologically in India. The stupa was opened in 1830 by the Chevalier Ventura. At a depth of about one meter (3.3 ft.), he encountered a collection of coins. Further coins were found at depths of three and six meters. As they dug deeper, the workers found a box of gold and a second box of copper under a stone slab 13 meters down. This was interpreted at the time as a royal tomb. JAMES prinsep, however, who wrote on this digging, correctly identified the stupa as a Buddhist monument.
See also coinage.
Mantai Formerly known as Mahatittha, Mantai is a large mound located on the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka. Its location is pivotal in the great maritime exchange route that linked the Mediterranean world with China and the countries between. Excavation, aborted before completion by civil war, revealed much exotic pottery and the remains of brick structures.
Maodun (r. 209-174 b. c.e.) Maodun was the greatest shanyu (great leader) of the Xiongnu, a nomadic people who occupied the Mongolian steppes.
Traditionally the Xiongnu were divided into 24 tribes, but under Maodun they were united and presented an immediate threat to Han China. To keep peace on the northern border, the Chinese emperors negotiated treaties with Maodun and gave him lavish presents. Maodun was the senior son of the Shanyu Touman. The latter preferred a younger son and sent Maodun as a hostage to his enemy, the nomadic Yuezhi, before promptly attacking them. This would traditionally have led to the death of Mao-dun, but he managed to escape. Impressed by his bravery, Touman gave him his own command. Maodun then trained his men to fire their arrows at any target he chose with his own bow, on pain of death. When the opportunity arose, he fired at his own father and killed him. Maodun then seized overall power at the same time as gaozu (247-195 B. C.E.) was consolidating his position as the first emperor of the Western HAN dynasty.
MAODUN’S VICTORIES
A clash was precipitated by Maodun, who moved his forces into China, capturing the king of Dai. It was winter, and Gaodi personally led his troops north. sima qian described how three out of 10 soldiers suffered from frostbite. It was now that Maodun revealed his wily military brain. He placed only his weakest troops in view of the Han and tempted them forward to attack. With an army estimated at 320,000 men, Gaodi advanced as far as the city of Pingcheng. Maodun’s cavalry then surrounded the Chinese host, and there was no escape. For a week, they remained immobile. At the behest of his wife, Mao-dun left open a sector of the encirclement and allowed the emperor to escape. His wife argued that there was no possibility that the xiongnu would ever occupy all China and that the emperor was protected by his gods. Maodun then withdrew north but continued to support disruptive border raids into China.
TREATIES WITH MAODUN
The next step in diplomatic relations was a treaty in which Gaodi sent a Han princess to be a consort of Mao-dun, together with gifts of silk and grain. This move, in effect, was an act of appeasement to restrain the Xiongnu from further attack and set a precedent only to be reversed under the reign of Emperor WUDI (157-87 B. C.E.). Maodun, however, became more truculent, even proposing marriage to the dowager empress Lu.
In 180 B. C.E., Emperor wendi was consecrated and renewed the treaty with the Xiongnu. Three years later, however, one of Maodun’s subsidiary leaders, known as “the wise king of the right,” invaded China, and Wendi led a punitive expedition. The king of the right withdrew north, but Maodun decided to consolidate the treaty relationship. In a carefully worded letter to the Han emperor, he described how he had dispatched the king of the right against the Yuezhi people and annihilated them. Now the Xiongnu were united and controlled vast tracts of Mongolia and the tarim basin. The message was clear: He was negotiating from a position of strength. This peace proposal was accepted, and the Han gave Maodun, in the words of the emperor as recorded by sima Qian, “from [their] own wardrobe an embroidered robe lined with patterned damask, an embroidered and lined underrobe, and a brocaded coat, one each; one CoMB; one sash with gold ornaments; one gold-ornamented leather belt; ten rolls of embroidery; thirty rolls of brocade; and forty rolls each of heavy red silk and light green silk.”
Maodun died in 174 b. c.e., the most powerful and successful of the leaders of the Xiongnu, and was interred in the remote cemetery of Khunui-gol.
Marshall, Sir John (1876-1958) Sir John Marshall was the director-general of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 until 1931.
He was aged only 26 when he took up his duties. He went to India with previous experience in the eastern Mediterranean, particularly Greece and Crete. At a time when laws were enacted to prohibit the removal and sale of antiquities and to safeguard ancient monuments, the period of Marshall’s directorship saw a major increase in archaeological activity, and he excavated at many major Indian sites. His early fieldwork took him to charsada in Pakistan, where he began excavations on the Bala Hisar mound, while his colleagues worked at sahri-bahlol and Takht-i-Bahi. In 1913 he commenced a program of research at taxila, in modern Pakistan, which to this day represents one of the most important excavations on any urban complex in India. From the outset, he resolved to uncover as much as possible of the layout and history of the three cities there. Moreover, the Greek inspiration of the second city on this site recalled his earlier experiences in Greece; he himself expressed his sentiments almost half a century later when he wrote: “I still remember the thrill I got from the first sight of the buried cities.” Few archaeologists today could envisage cutting an excavation 150 (495 ft.) meters long into an early city site.
Similar large-scale excavations were also undertaken at BHITA, where he revealed the plan of a Mauryan and Gupta town that remains unparalleled to this day. From 1921, the Archaeological survey of India was responsible for the excavations at mohenjo daro and harappa that revealed one of the world’s few civilizations that originated with no influence or contact with any other state. The early results, incorporating the recovery of seals inscribed in an unknown script, encouraged Marshall to state in the Illustrated London News, an English weekly, that a new civilization had been discovered, a civilization roughly contemporary with those of Sumer and Egypt. Nor did he delay in publishing a three-volume report on Mohenjo Daro, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization (1931). He ceased being the director-general in 1928 and left a legacy of fundamental research and tradition of site conservation in the history of Indian archaeology that can be called the sir john Marshall period.
See also Indus valley civilization; maurya empire.
Mashan Mashan is a cemetery of the CHU state near the capital, Ying. It is best known because of a remarkable find, that of a middle-ranking aristocratic woman who was buried between 340 and 278 B. C.E., toward the end of the period when Ying was the Chu center. The grave contained two coffins nested one within the other, and the good state of preservation was largely due to the very thick wood employed and a sealing of lime mortar that arrested the forces of decay. The outer coffin contained two compartments other than that containing the woman’s corpse. These were filled with bamboo baskets containing offerings, a small dog skeleton, and figurines 60 centimeters (24 in.) high wearing silk clothing. The skeleton of the woman, who died when aged in her early 40s, was wrapped in successive layers of fabric tied into a tight bundle with nine brocade bands. Her hair and wig survived, and she had been interred fully dressed in a skirt, robe, and gown over the earliest-known underwear in China. Her thumbs and toes had been tied together with cords, and she held in her hands small rolls of silk. The most important items recovered, however, were the many varieties of woven and embroidered fabric, including designs of dragons, phoenixes, and tigers.
Mat Mat is the name of a village located on the Jumuna River, 14 kilometers (8.4 mi.) north of the great center of MATHURA in India. A substantial excavation of a mound called Tokri Tila, which lies northeast of the village, was undertaken in the early years of the 20th century. Despite much brick robbing from the site, the foundation plan of a rectangular temple measuring 48 by 32 meters (158.4 by 105.6 ft.) was reconstructed, confirming the text of two inscriptions that record the presence of a devakula, or temple, at this location. The building incorporates a circular chamber at the eastern end and a series of rooms around a court. A large water tank, lined with brick, was associated with the temple, and excavations there recovered the sculpture of a naga, a mythical snake, holding a plow. The site is best known for the recovery of a series of large stone statues of kushan kings, including a nearly complete life-size statue of King kanishka i (100-26 C. E.).
The image of the standing king includes an inscription in the brahmi script that states: “The king, king of kings, his majesty Kanishka.” Although lacking the head and arms, it projects an image of robust power. He holds a mace in his right hand and a huge sword in his left. He wears a knee-length tunic and a pair of heavy boots. His ornamented belt incorporated two plaques at the front. A second statue was reconstructed from several fractured pieces and, although still lacking the head, reveals a king seated on a throne flanked by lions. It stands just over two meters (6.6 ft.) in height. He seems to have been portrayed holding a sword over his right shoulder. The king had been identified as Wima I Tak [to], father of Wima Kadphises. He wore an embroidered tunic with long sleeves decorated all over with rosettes, a torque, or neck ring, and a bracelet. His boots had spurs and supporting straps. This fine statue is associated with an inscription that records the foundation of the temple, together with the water tank, a garden, and a well. The name of the king who endowed this foundation cannot be determined, but the full royal titles are included. A third statue, again missing the head and arms, depicts a prince wearing a knee-length tunic held in place by a belt with a series of interconnected plaques. Each of these is ornamented with a fish god or a man riding a horse, wearing a typical high Kushan hat, as seen on coins, and carrying a spear over his shoulder.
These statues provide an image of the power and majesty of the Kushan royal line, and the quality of the craftsmanship emphasizes the skill of the Mathura school of sculpture.
See also khalchayan.
Mathura Mathura is a major urban center located on the western bank of the Jamuna River in Uttar Pradesh state, India. There are three sources of information on this important site. The first is from the continual and widespread looting of works of art commencing in 1836, and the second involves the scientific archaeological examination of the site and its history Finally, there is the eyewitness account of Mathura written by the Buddhist monk XUANZANG in the early seventh century He noted the fertility of the land and excellent agriculture. There were many mango trees, and kapok was extensively grown. The climate was hot, the people virtuous. They honored the dead and encouraged learning. The city included 20 monasteries and more than 2,000 monks, but also five Hindu temples. Three stupas at Mathura, he said, were built by King asoka (268-235 b. c.e.). He named the monks whose remains lay beneath stupas in the city: sariputra, Maudgalyayana, and Purnamaitraniputra.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Scientific archaeology, initiated in 1954 and continuing in the 1970s, has revealed five major phases of occupation, beginning in the late prehistoric Iron Age with a small settlement beside the river, a situation offering the advantages of river trade and access to good agricultural land. This first phase, which began in about 600 b. c.e., was followed in Period II with the construction of an extensive mud rampart that stood at least 6.5 meters (21.4 ft.) in height and enclosed an area of 350 hectares (875 acres). This period dates from the end of the fourth century until about 200 B. C.E. Interior structures have been uncovered, built in mud or, on occasion, burnt mud brick. There were bone arrowheads in the occupation layers and beads of exotic amethyst and topaz. The third period covers the last two centuries C. E. and saw further domestic constructions in baked brick, the construction of mud platforms, and the presence of roof tiles. It was, however, during Period IV, ascribed to the kushan empire (78-200 c. e.), that Mathura was at the height of its cultural powers. An inner enclosure was demarcated by a rampart wall, reservoirs and temples were constructed, and inscriptions recorded donations to religious foundations, including the names of the Kushan kings kanishka i and Huviska. Kushan coins of this phase date to the first to the third centuries C. E., the period when the Mathura school of sculpture was active. Excavations have yielded sculptures of the Buddha, scenes from his life, a lion, and the head of a king with Buddha figures on the crown. Further examples of Mathura sculptures are found in Period V, which has been dated to the period of GUPTA EMPIRE dominance from the fourth to sixth century
WORKS OF ART
Another source of information on Mathura derives from the examination of works of art that do not have a known provenience. The source of red sandstone, the nearby Sikri quarry, was used by sculptors of the Mathura school, and their products are widely distributed in north and central India. The Mathura tradition developed in tandem with the other great artistic center of gandhara, both encouraged by the Kushan rulers, but with a clear debt to Greek inspiration. Beginning in the first century C. E., the Mathura workshops paid particular attention to the production of large and robust images of the Buddha with his arm held up in the position of offering reassurance. They also produced statues of Kushan kings, in which the ruler was depicted wearing traditional central Asian clothing: a tunic, boots, and a distinctive conical cap. It is interesting to detect, in the depiction of female figures, the continuation of a preference for the traditional yakshi, or female fertility figure. These are usually seen associated with a tree.
The stone monuments that survive give no impression of the splendor that was witnessed by Xuanzang. In his own words: “On such a day offerings are made in competition to the various stupas, and pearled banners are displayed and gemmed canopies arranged in rows; the smoke of incense pervades the air like clouds, and flowers are scattered in showers that obscure the sun and the Moon and cause great tumult in the valleys.”
Maurya empire The Maurya empire of India was established as the rulers of the state of magadha defeated rivals and incorporated them in the dominant polity of the Ganges (Ganga) Valley in about 325 b. c.e. From a base in the north, these rulers, particularly asoka, the third king, expanded their control over much of India. The Mauryan period saw the reestablishment of urban life and widespread state control under a royal dynasty based at the capital, pataliputra. Agriculture, the mainstay of the state, was encouraged through large irrigation works, and India entered an expanding sphere of trade and industry in which iron smelting played a key role. Both buddhism and Hinduism grew in importance, particularly the latter under Asoka. It was he who sent Buddhist missionaries to southeast Asia. Many of the later Indian institutions, architectural styles, religious foundations, forms of governance, and writing had their origins in the Maurya empire. There were five kings: can-DRAGUPTA MAURYA, who ruled from about 325 until 297 B. C.E.; followed by Bindusara (297-292 b. c.e.); Asoka (268-235 b. c.e.); Dasaratha (235-221 b. c.e.); and, finally,
Brihadratha. The last king was murdered by a rival ruler, Pushymitra Sunga.
LITERARY SOURCES
Any consideration of the Maurya empire is based on two major sources: literary and archaeological. The ARTHASAS-TRA of KAUTILYA (c. 330-270 B. C.E.), a minister to Can-dragupta Maurya, is a treatise on the management of a state and includes the gamut of activity, from the proper form of the capital city to the layout of a fort, the means of governance through ministers, foreign policy, trade, industry, and infrastructure. This is an idealistic document, and it is the role of archaeology to test the degree to which it was realized. Excavations, however, have so far only scratched the surface of the potential, particularly in the area of urban planning and city layouts.
Other literary sources include the first corpus of inscriptions, set up to proclaim the virtuous foundations and activities of Asoka, who was an enthusiastic devote of Buddhism. His conversion, which took place about 10 years into his reign, was a vital event in the history of Buddhism and also brought about enlightened changes in the harsh and repressive Mauryan rule. These inscriptions not only describe the royal policies, but through their wide distribution provide an understanding of the extent of his kingdom. The Maurya empire also arose in the aftermath of the invasion by Alexander the great (356-323 b. c.e.) of northeastern India and Pakistan. There was direct contact with the Greek empire in the east, and it is highly likely that aspects of Mauryan architecture, coinage, and art were influenced by the Greeks. Certainly, many Greeks visited Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital, and one, megas-THENES, wrote down his impressions.
The Maurya empire forcibly absorbed other developing states. To the northeast, in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan, the bhir mound at taxila, charsada, and Nagarahara were provincial centers in the Mauryan sphere. Many formerly independent cities in the Ganges (Ganga) Valley became Mauryan dependents. The Kun-wari and Pahuj Rivers link the Ganges and Jamuna Plains with Madhya Pradesh, and here are the Mauryan cities of UJJAIN, Eran, Vidisha, and Tripuri. Farther south still, the Krishna River and the valleys of its major tributaries, the Hagari and Tungabhadra, sustained a group of impressive cities, including Madhavpura and sannathi, both of which covered more than 40 hectares (100 acres); Brah-magiri, and banavisi. On the west coast of India, the potential of maritime trade was realized with the development of port cities, as it was with the long coastal tract on the east coast from Dhanyakataka to Candraketugarh on the Ganges Delta.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
The Kautilyan ideal of a city incorporated a royal palace in the center, surrounded by square precincts each with its own function: an elephant park, areas for merchants, artisans, and entertainment, and residences. These were protected by a city wall with forts and moats. Religious sanctuaries could be built both within the walls and beyond them, and the dead were cremated in a specified area depending on the class of the deceased. Given the monsoon climate and seasonal rainfall patterns, reservoirs were constructed, were linked to canals and often surrounding moats, and were sources for irrigated fields. The archaeological verification of the ideal has been realized only in the most limited manner, through early excavations by sir John marshall at bhita and the Bhir Mound of Taxila. At Bhita, some evidence was found in favor of a regular street plan flanked by domestic houses. A gate on the eastern wall led directly into a street on an east-west axis along which shops were located. Narrow lanes led off to north and south, each flanking a residence with rooms around a central court. The walls were constructed of fired brick, and the residents enjoyed drainage and obtained their water from deep wells. Marshall’s excavations at the Bhir Mound at Taxila found a less orderly street plan, but the houses, with walls of stone, conformed to a plan of a series of rooms around a court. Excavations at Bhita concentrated on the eastern margin of the ancient city, and no sign of monumental architecture was encountered. An unpublished excavation at Taxila by SIR MORTIMER WHEELER uncovered a large apsidal structure, which might have been some form of religious building. At the imperial capital, Patilaputra, a huge pillared hall has been discovered, confirming Megasthenes’ description of monumental buildings there. Little else is known of this dominant city, other than its elongated form along the southern bank of the Ganges River and the survival of the wooden components of the defensive wall. If the splendid headdresses, costumes, and jewelry of the Mauryan terra-cotta models of dancers and goddesses are a guide, the inhabitants of these cities would have been most elegant.
Further evidence for monumental architecture is gained from the Mauryan columns and surviving religious buildings. The columns were in all known cases obtained from the sandstone quarries of Chunar, west of Varanasi (Benares). They stand between 12 and 14 meters (39.6 and 46.2 ft.) high and bear a capital of carved Buddhist symbols and usually the carved figure of a lion. Their ascription to the reign of Asoka is based on the presence of his inscriptions on at least 10 examples. At both sanchi and SARNATH, a column is associated with a Buddhist foundation. Another was transported to lumbini, birthplace of the Buddha, a major task, as with other remote sites, given their enormous size. The brief inscription associated with this column is interesting, because it records how Asoka visited Lumbini, worshiped there, and gave the community the advantage of paying only one-eighth of its production to the state, rather than the regulation one-sixth.
The association of Asokan columns with Buddhist sanctuaries clarifies their purpose and confirms the development of religious architecture in permanent materials. The Buddhist foundation at Sarnath has a stupa, a shrine, and a caitya, or hall, in addition to its column. The stupa is a widespread Buddhist form of monument, which, over the centuries, grew greatly in size and monumentality In origin, it was a mound of earth placed over a cremation, but its significance increased as it was seen as a monument over a relic of the Buddha. The dharmarajika stupa of Sarnath was made of brick. There is also evidence for the construction of temples to the Hindu gods at Vidisa and Nagari, the former in honor of Vishnu and the latter dedicated to Krishna. Rock-cut temple shrines also date back to the Mauryan period. In Bihar, just south of Patna, the Lomas Rishi cave in the Barabar Hills has an ornate portal cut into a rectangular rock-cut chamber that in turn gives access to a circular, domed shrine room.
WRITING
The origins of writing after the demise of the INDUS valley CIVILIZATION SCRIPT are not clearly defined, but the recent recovery of inscribed potsherds at anuradhapura in Sri Lanka reveals that the brahmi script was possibly used there by 600-450 b. c.e. There are two scripts: In the northwest, the kharoshthi originated in Aramaic; it is likely that the Brahmi script used over the rest of the subcontinent was adapted from an Aramaic script encountered through mercantile contact with the West. The largest corpus of inscriptions are the edicts of Asoka, but there are also texts on copper and seals containing the names of the owners. According to the Arthasastra, state records were maintained and stored, but they were presumably written on perishable materials and have not survived, Mauryan coinage was also probably inspired through direct contact with the Achaemenid provinces and through the irruption of Alexander the Great into the northwest. The coins were made of silver and copper and had fixed sizes and values.
See also achaemenid empire.
Further reading: Chopra, R N., ed. The Gazeteer of India. Vol. 2, History and Culture. New Delhi: Department of Culture, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, 1973; Harle, J. C. The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. London: Penguin Books, 1986; Mani, V R., and R. Chakravarti. A Sourcebook of Indian Civilization. Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2000; Sivaramamurti, C. The Art of India. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1977.
Mawangdui Mawangdui is best known for three tombs that date to the Western HAN dynasty (206 B. c.E.-c. 9 C. E.) and contained the remains of a high but not supreme family in the former state of CHU. Tomb 2 contains the remains of Li Cang, the marquis of Dai and chancellor to the king of CHU; Tomb 3 was that of his son, who died when aged about 30 years. The marquis died in 168 b. c.e., and since the third tomb cuts into the earlier burials, it dates to at least 168 b. c.e. and possibly later. The contents of Tomb 1 were extraordinarily well preserved, including the body of the marchioness of Dai. No fewer than four coffins were found placed one within the next, descending in size until the innermost measured two by 0.7 meter (6 by 2.3 ft.). Each was finely constructed, covered in lacquer, and painted with scenes that included auspicious animals and symbols. The coffin containing the corpse was covered in silk fabric, and a silk tomb banner lay on the top. This banner, preserved in its entirety and still retaining its original colors, would have been carried in front of the coffin during the funeral rituals. It is not uncommon to find the dead person portrayed on such mortuary banners in conjunction with the necessary symbols for the passage of the spirit to the heavenly world. That from Tomb 1 of Mawangdui is the best yet recovered. But perhaps even more impressive were the silk manuscripts in Tomb 3.
Not long after the establishment of the Han dynasty in 206 B. C.E., the traditions of the old kingdom of Chu remained a powerful influence. Li Cang had been given his fiefdom by the king of Changsha, a dynasty that survived in local authority but was not related to the imperial Han. Mawangdui lies in a suburb of Changsha in Hunan province of China, which under the name Linxi-ang was the capital of the kingdom.
TOMB 1 STRUCTURE
Tomb 1 incorporated a mound raised above the ground and measuring about 60 meters (198 ft.) in diameter. A rectangular pit lay in the center of the mound, measuring 19.5 by 18 meters (64.3 by 59.4 ft.), below which a deep shaft had been excavated to contain the remains of Xin Zhui, the marchioness. This shaft began in a rectangular form of decreasing steps, but below a depth of four meters (13.2 ft.) it assumed a funnel shape. It attained a depth of nearly 17 meters below the present ground surface and was formerly reached by a long access ramp. The coffin chamber at the base was encased in protective layers of charcoal and clay. The former was nearly a half-meter thick, the latter up to 1.3 meters deep. These had the effect of shutting out air and moisture, thereby preserving the contents in a remarkable condition. After the interment, the shaft was filled with stamped earth, following the same technique that had been used at anyang a millennium earlier.
The wooden mortuary structure at the base was fashioned from cypress wood; and with a length of almost seven meters and a width of five meters, it was large enough to contain a series of chambers. One of these incorporated four nested lacquered coffins that required an estimated 1 million hours to complete. The other chambers were designated for the goods necessary to sustain Xin Zhui in the afterlife.
TOMB 1 SILK BANNER
Xin Zhui is seen twice on the silk banner, once on a dais laid out before interment, surrounded by retainers and ritual offering vessels. On the second occasion, she stands in front of two figures, possibly divine messengers, supporting herself with a stick. This very stick has been found in the tomb. Three waiting maids are grouped behind her. She wears an elegant robe decorated with cloud patterns. Below both these scenes are the nether regions, represented by fish. Out of the depths rise two dragons, whose bodies pass through a jade ring as they ascend toward the heavens. The celestial world, to which the woman’s soul is destined to journey, is seen on the top crosspiece. The Sun and crescent Moon are seen to right and left there, with two further dragons and goddesses. The portal through which the woman must pass is guarded by two leopards and two male figures representing the lords of fate who guarded the gate into heaven.
World History
